Delivery and use of the CRISPR-Cas systems, vectors and compositions for hepatic targeting and therapy

ABSTRACT

The invention provides for delivery, engineering and optimization of systems, methods, and compositions for manipulation of sequences and/or activities of target sequences. Provided are delivery systems and tissues or organ which are targeted as sites for delivery. Also provided are vectors and vector systems some of which encode one or more components of a CRISPR complex, as well as methods for the design and use of such vectors. Also provided are methods of directing CRISPR complex formation in eukaryotic cells to ensure enhanced specificity for target recognition and avoidance of toxicity and to edit or modify a target site in a genomic locus of interest to alter or improve the status of a disease or a condition.

RELATED APPLICATIONS AND INCORPORATION BY REFERENCE

This application is a Continuation-in-Part of International ApplicationNumber PCT/US2014/041804 filed on Jun. 10, 2014, which published as PCTPublication Number WO2014/204726 on Dec. 24, 2014. Priority is claimedfrom U.S. provisional patent applications 61/836,123, filed Jun. 17,2013, 61/847,537, filed Jul. 17, 2013, 61/862,355, filed Aug. 5, 2013,61/871,301, filed Aug. 28, 2013, 61/915,383, filed Dec. 12, 2013,61/979,733, filed Apr. 15, 2014, and PCT/US2013/074667, filed Dec. 12,2013, as to which for purposes of the United States, this application isalso a continuation-in-part; and as may be permitted under US law, theUS equivalent or National Phase hereto may further claim and claimpriority as to PCT/US2013/074667 and applications from whichPCT/US2013/074667 claims priority.

The foregoing applications, and all documents cited therein or duringtheir prosecution (“appln cited documents”) and all documents cited orreferenced in the appln cited documents, and all documents cited orreferenced herein (“herein cited documents”), and all documents cited orreferenced in herein cited documents, together with any manufacturer'sinstructions, descriptions, product specifications, and product sheetsfor any products mentioned herein or in any document incorporated byreference herein, are hereby incorporated herein by reference, and maybe employed in the practice of the invention. More specifically, allreferenced documents are incorporated by reference to the same extent asif each individual document was specifically and individually indicatedto be incorporated by reference.

STATEMENT AS TO FEDERALLY SPONSORED RESEARCH

This invention was made with government support under grant no. MH100706awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The government has certainrights in the invention.

SEQUENCE LISTING

The instant application contains a Sequence Listing which has beensubmitted electronically in ASCII format and is hereby incorporated byreference in its entirety. Said ASCII copy, created on Dec. 5, 2015, isnamed 44790022052 SL.txt and is 370,805 bytes in size.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION

The present invention generally relates to the delivery, engineering,optimization and therapeutic applications of systems, methods, andcompositions used for the control of gene expression involving sequencetargeting, such as genome perturbation or gene-editing, that relate toClustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats (CRISPR) andcomponents thereof. In particular, the present invention relates toaspects related to delivery to the liver, for gene therapy of liverconditions, understanding liver or liver tissue gene function and thecreation of liver models. Liver or liver tissue includes parenchymalcells commonly referred to as hepatocytes. Liver or Liver tissue canalso be liver cells that are non-parenchymal cells, especially as suchcells constitute 40% of the total number of liver cells even though only6.5% of its volume; and, examples of such non-parenchymal cells livercells or tissue include sinusoidal hepatic endothelial cells, Kupffercells and hepatic stellate cells. Cells of the liver express one or moreliver gene product(s). Advantageously the invention is practiced withrespect to hepatocytes or liver or liver tissue comprising hepatocytes.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

Recent advances in genome sequencing techniques and analysis methodshave significantly accelerated the ability to catalog and map geneticfactors associated with a diverse range of biological functions anddiseases. Precise genome targeting technologies are needed to enablesystematic reverse engineering of causal genetic variations by allowingselective perturbation of individual genetic elements, as well as toadvance synthetic biology, biotechnological, and medical applications.Although genome-editing techniques such as designer zinc fingers,transcription activator-like effectors (TALEs), or homing meganucleasesare available for producing targeted genome perturbations, there remainsa need for new genome engineering technologies that are affordable, easyto set up, scalable, and amenable to targeting multiple positions withinthe eukaryotic genome.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

The CRISPR-Cas system does not require the generation of customizedproteins to target specific sequences but rather a single Cas enzyme canbe programmed by a short RNA molecule to recognize a specific DNAtarget. Adding the CRISPR-Cas system to the repertoire of genomesequencing techniques and analysis methods may significantly simplifythe methodology and accelerate the ability to catalog and map geneticfactors associated with a diverse range of biological functions anddiseases. To utilize the CRISPR-Cas system effectively for genomeediting without deleterious effects, it is critical to understandaspects of engineering, optimization and cell-type/tissue/organ specificdelivery of these genome engineering tools, which are aspects of theclaimed invention.

There exists a pressing need for alternative and robust systems andtechniques for nucleic acid sequence targeting with a wide array ofapplications. Aspects of this invention address this need and providerelated advantages. An exemplary CRISPR complex comprises a CRISPRenzyme complexed with a guide sequence hybridized or hybridizable to atarget sequence within the target polynucleotide. The guide sequence islinked to a tracr mate sequence, which in turn hybridizes to a tracrsequence.

In one aspect, the invention provides methods for using one or moreelements of a CRISPR-Cas system. The CRISPR complex of the inventionprovides an effective means for modifying a target polynucleotide. TheCRISPR complex of the invention has a wide variety of utilitiesincluding modifying (e.g., deleting, inserting, translocating,inactivating, activating) a target polynucleotide in a multiplicity ofcell types in various tissues and organs. As such the CRISPR complex ofthe invention has a broad spectrum of applications in, e.g., gene orgenome editing, gene therapy, drug discovery, drug screening, diseasediagnosis, and prognosis. In vivo, in vitro and ex vivo uses areenvisaged.

Aspects of the invention relate to Cas9 enzymes having improvedliver-targeting specificity in a CRISPR-Cas9 system having guide RNAshaving optimal activity, smaller in length than wild-type Cas9 enzymesand nucleic acid molecules coding therefor, and chimeric Cas9 enzymes,as well as methods of improving the targeting specificity of a Cas9enzyme or of designing a CRISPR-Cas9 system comprising designing orpreparing guide RNAs having optimal activity and/or selecting orpreparing a Cas9 enzyme having a smaller size or length than wild-typeCas9 whereby packaging a nucleic acid coding therefor into a deliveryvector is more advanced as there is less coding therefor in the deliveryvector than for wild-type Cas9, and/or generating chimeric Cas9 enzymes.

Also provided are uses of the present sequences, vectors, enzymes orsystems, in medicine. Also provided are uses of the same in gene orgenome editing. This is in relation to liver tissues or cells, whetherin or ex vivo,

In an additional aspect of the invention, a Cas9 enzyme may comprise oneor more mutations and may be used as a generic DNA binding protein withor without fusion to a functional domain. The mutations may beartificially introduced mutations or gain- or loss-of-functionmutations. The mutations may include but are not limited to mutations inone of the catalytic domains (D10 and H840) in the RuvC and HNHcatalytic domains, respectively. Further mutations have beencharacterized and may be used in one or more compositions of theinvention. In one aspect of the invention, the mutated Cas9 enzyme maybe fused to a protein domain, e.g., such as a transcriptional activationdomain. In one aspect, of the invention, the transcriptional activationdomain may be VP64. In other aspects of the invention, thetranscriptional repressor domain may be KRAB or SID4X. Other aspects ofthe invention relate to the mutated Cas 9 enzyme being fused to domainswhich include but are not limited to a transcriptional activator,repressor, a recombinase, a transposase, a histone remodeler, ademethylase, a DNA methyltransferase, a cryptochrome, a lightinducible/controllable domain or a chemically inducible/controllabledomain.

In a further embodiment, the invention provides for methods to generatemutant tracrRNA and direct repeat sequences or mutant chimeric guidesequences that allow for enhancing performance of these RNAs in cells.Aspects of the invention also provide for selection of said sequences.

Aspects of the invention also provide for methods of simplifying thecloning and delivery of components of the CRISPR complex. In thepreferred embodiment of the invention, a suitable promoter, such as theU6 promoter, is amplified with a DNA oligo and added onto the guide RNA.The resulting PCR product can then be transfected into cells to driveexpression of the guide RNA. Aspects of the invention also relate to theguide RNA being transcribed in vitro or ordered from a synthesis companyand directly transfected.

In one aspect, the invention provides for methods to improve activity byusing a more active polymerase. In a preferred embodiment, theexpression of guide RNAs under the control of the T7 promoter is drivenby the expression of the T7 polymerase in the cell. In an advantageousembodiment, the cell is a eukaryotic cell. In a preferred embodiment theeukaryotic cell is a human cell. In a more preferred embodiment thehuman cell is a patient specific cell.

In one aspect, the invention provides for methods of reducing thetoxicity of Cas enzymes. In certain aspects, the Cas enzyme is any Cas9as described herein, for instance any naturally-occurring bacterial Cas9as well as any chimaeras, mutants, homologs or orthologs. In a preferredembodiment, the Cas9 is delivered into the cell in the form of mRNA.This allows for the transient expression of the enzyme thereby reducingtoxicity. In another preferred embodiment, the invention also providesfor methods of expressing Cas9 under the control of an induciblepromoter, and the constructs used therein.

In another aspect, the invention provides for methods of improving thein vivo applications of the CRISPR-Cas system. In the preferredembodiment, the Cas enzyme is wildtype Cas9 or any of the modifiedversions described herein, including any naturally-occurring bacterialCas9 as well as any chimaeras, mutants, homologs or orthologs. Anadvantageous aspect of the invention provides for the selection of Cas9homologs that are easily packaged into viral vectors for delivery. Cas9orthologs typically share the general organization of 3-4 RuvC domainsand a HNH domain. The 5′ most RuvC domain cleaves the non-complementarystrand, and the HNH domain cleaves the complementary strand. Allnotations are in reference to the guide sequence.

The catalytic residue in the 5′ RuvC domain is identified throughhomology comparison of the Cas9 of interest with other Cas9 orthologs(from S. pyogenes type II CRISPR locus, S. thermophilus CRISPR locus 1,S. thermophilus CRISPR locus 3, and Franciscilla novicida type II CRISPRlocus), and the conserved Asp residue (D10) is mutated to alanine toconvert Cas9 into a complementary-strand nicking enzyme. Similarly, theconserved His and Asn residues in the HNH domains are mutated to Alanineto convert Cas9 into a non-complementary-strand nicking enzyme. In someembodiments, both sets of mutations may be made, to convert Cas9 into anon-cutting enzyme.

In some embodiments, the CRISPR enzyme is a type I or III CRISPR enzyme,preferably a type II CRISPR enzyme. This type II CRISPR enzyme may beany Cas enzyme. A preferred Cas enzyme may be identified as Cas9 as thiscan refer to the general class of enzymes that share homology to thebiggest nuclease with multiple nuclease domains from the type II CRISPRsystem. Most preferably, the Cas9 enzyme is from, or is derived from,spCas9 or saCas9. By derived, Applicants mean that the derived enzyme islargely based, in the sense of having a high degree of sequence homologywith, a wildtype enzyme, but that it has been mutated (modified) in someway as described herein.

It will be appreciated that the terms Cas and CRISPR enzyme aregenerally used herein interchangeably, unless otherwise apparent. Asmentioned above, many of the residue numberings used herein refer to theCas9 enzyme from the type II CRISPR locus in Streptococcus pyogenes.However, it will be appreciated that this invention includes many moreCas9s from other species of microbes, such as SpCas9, SaCas9, St1Cas9and so forth. Further examples are provided herein. The skilled personwill be able to determine appropriate corresponding residues in Cas9enzymes other than SpCas9 by comparison of the relevant amino acidsequences. Thus, where a specific amino acid replacement is referred tousing the SpCas9 numbering, then, unless the context makes it apparentthis is not intended to refer to other Cas9 enzymes, the disclosure isintended to encompass corresponding modifications in other Cas9 enzymes.SaCas9 is particularly preferred.

An example of a codon optimized sequence, in this instance optimized forhumans (i.e. being optimized for expression in humans) is providedherein, e.g., see the SaCas9 human codon optimized sequence. Whilst thisis preferred, it will be appreciated that other examples are possible,and codon optimization for a host species other than human, or for codonoptimization for specific organs such as the brain, is known.

In further embodiments, the invention provides for methods of enhancingthe function of Cas9 by generating chimeric Cas9 proteins. Chimeric Cas9proteins chimeric Cas9s may be new Cas9 containing fragments from morethan one naturally occurring Cas9. These methods may comprise fusingN-terminal fragments of one Cas9 homolog with C-terminal fragments ofanother Cas9 homolog. These methods also allow for the selection of newproperties displayed by the chimeric Cas9 proteins.

It will be appreciated that in the present methods, where the organismis an animal or a plant, the modification may occur ex vivo or in vitro,for instance in a cell culture and in some instances not in vivo. Inother embodiments, it may occur in vivo.

In one aspect, the invention provides a method of modifying an organismor a non-human organism by manipulation of a target sequence in agenomic locus of interest comprising: delivering a non-naturallyoccurring or engineered composition comprising:

A)—I. a CRISPR-Cas system chimeric RNA (chiRNA) polynucleotide sequence,wherein the polynucleotide sequence comprises:

(a) a guide sequence capable of hybridizing to a target sequence in aeukaryotic cell,

(b) a tracr mate sequence, and

(c) a tracr sequence, and

II. a polynucleotide sequence encoding a CRISPR enzyme comprising atleast one or more nuclear localization sequences,

wherein (a), (b) and (c) are arranged in a 5′ to 3′ orientation,

wherein when transcribed, the tracr mate sequence hybridizes to thetracr sequence and the guide sequence directs sequence-specific bindingof a CRISPR complex to the target sequence, and wherein the CRISPRcomplex comprises the CRISPR enzyme complexed with (1) the guidesequence that is hybridized or hybridizable to the target sequence, and(2) the tracr mate sequence that is hybridized or hybridizable to thetracr sequence and the polynucleotide sequence encoding a CRISPR enzymeis DNA or RNA,or(B) I. polynucleotides comprising:(a) a guide sequence capable of hybridizing to a target sequence in aeukaryotic cell, and(b) at least one or more tracr mate sequences,II. a polynucleotide sequence encoding a CRISPR enzyme, andIII. a polynucleotide sequence comprising a tracr sequence,wherein when transcribed, the tracr mate sequence hybridizes to thetracr sequence and the guide sequence directs sequence-specific bindingof a CRISPR complex to the target sequence, and wherein the CRISPRcomplex comprises the CRISPR enzyme complexed with (1) the guidesequence that is hybridized or hybridizable to the target sequence, and(2) the tracr mate sequence that is hybridized or hybridizable to thetracr sequence, and the polynucleotide sequence encoding a CRISPR enzymeis DNA or RNA.

In some embodiments, the second alternative above is preferred. Thefirst alternative is particularly preferred, however, in most but notall aspects of the disclosure.

It will be appreciated that the present application is directed to theliver, whether that is the organ per se or a tissue within it or simplyone or more liver cells, e.g., hepatocytes. Primary hepatocytes arepreferred. The liver cells may be comprised within a vertebrate animal,either a patient (in the sense of an animal in need of CRISPR-directedgene therapy) or a model organism, or may be in cell culture, anorganoid or other ex vivo tissue, such a “liver on a chip” for instancewhere hepatocytes are seeded and grown on a scaffold. Harvestedhepatocytes from un-transplanted organs are also a useful target. Withthe development of 3-D printing techniques being applied to biology,printed tissues are within grasp and it is entirely feasible that livercells or tissues printed in this way to create an organoid or onto achip could also be targeted.

Thus, provided is a model organism comprising liver cells, such ashepatocytes, to which the present CRISPR-Cas system has been delivered.Similarly, also provided is an ex vivo collection of two or more livercells, such as hepatocytes, to which the present CRISPR-Cas system hasbeen delivered. Such collections may include liver organs, liverorganoids, liver cells populating a scaffold (as.g., such as ‘liver on achip’). Methods of creating such models or colelctions are alsoprovided.

In particular, such liver cells may express, or may comprisepolynucleotides capable of expressing, a Cas enzyme. As discussedherein, this has the advantage of providing a ready model forinterrogating gene function through gene perturbation, including knockdown. This is particularly useful in studying conditions of the liver,such as amyloidosis and others those listed herein, as well as broaderconditions such as obesity, where liver is only one of the affectcomponents in the body.

Methods of interrogating liver gene function are also provided herein.These typically comprise delivering to liver cells, either in or exvivo, the CRISPR-Cas system. However, if the cells already comprise Cas,whether expressed as a protein or encoded by polynucleotides alreadycomprised within the cells, then only the CRISPR polynucleotide needs tobe delivered. The method may include extraction from and, optionally,re-insertion back into the liver. By delivering, it is meant actuallyphysical delivery of the polynucleotides to the nucleus of the cell, butalso transfection. Therefore, delivery should also be read as includingtransfection unless otherwise apparent. Gene knockdown or perturbation

Methods of gene therapy are also envisaged. For instance, correction ofone or more deficient genotypes (for example single point mutations) isachievable through the use of the present CRISPR-Cas system in the livercells discussed herein (including the models). Monogenic conditionsassociated with the liver are particularly preferred and are exemplifiedherein, see Example 38 where the CRISPR-Cas9 system target was ApoB, alipid metabolism gene, was effective at inducing a phenotypic change invivo. Compositons for use in gene therapy are also provided.

Although various Cas enzymes are envisaged, Cas9 is particularlypreferred and we have shown particular efficacy in the liver for SaCa9.Tracr sequence from Sa is also preferred if the Cas enzyme is an Sa Casenzyme. A suitable PAM in such circumstance is NNGRR. For S. pyogenesCas9 or derived enzymes, a suitable PAM is 5′-NRG.

Although one guide may be used, so-called multiplexing with two, three,four or more guides, is particularly useful in interrogation of genefunction and model creation (to provide multiple gene knock downs), butalso in gene therapy where multiple defective genotypes are to becorrected (either multiple errors in a single gene or, more likely,multiple errors spread across several genes). Alternatively,multiplexing with two guides is useful in a dual nickase approach toreduce off-target effects or simply selection of multiple targets withinone gene to ensure Cas recruitment. Triple and quadruple guides arepreferred. Reference to gene herein is made interchangeably with genomiclocus.

The intron approach described here is also useful in this regard, wherethe guide is positioned within the Cas intron.

Preferred means of delivery include the methods described by Kanastybelow, such as LNP, especially where only the guide is to be deliveredor it is to be delivered alone. However, viral vectors includinglentiviral and AAV are generally preferred for the liver as they havebeen successful to date. Of these, AAV is preferred and especiallyserotype 8, with AAV2/8 shown to be effective.

Some preferred targets, to the extent that they are present in orconditions of the liver are metabolic disorders, such as any one of:Amyloid neuropathy (TTR, PALB); Amyloidosis (APOA1, APP, AAA, CVAP, AD1,GSN, FGA, LYZ, TTR, PALB); Cirrhosis (KRT18, KRT8, CIRH1A, NAIC, TEX292,KIAA1988); Cystic fibrosis (CFTR, ABCC7, CF, MRP7); Glycogen storagediseases (SLC2A2, GLUT2, G6PC, G6PT, G6PT1, GAA, LAMP2, LAMPB, AGL, GDE,GBE1, GYS2, PYGL, PFKM); Hepatic adenoma, 142330 (TCF1, HNF1A, MODY3),Hepatic failure, early onset, and neurologic disorder (SCOD1, SCO1),Hepatic lipase deficiency (LIPC), Hepatoblastoma, cancer and carcinomas(CTNNB1, PDGFRL, PDGRL, PRLTS, AXIN1, AXIN, CTNNB1, TP53, P53, LFS1,IGF2R, MPRI, MET, CASP8, MCH5; Medullary cystic kidney disease (UMOD,HNFJ, FJHN, MCKD2, ADMCKD2); Phenylketonuria (PAH, PKU1, QDPR, DHPR,PTS); Polycystic kidney and hepatic disease (FCYT, PKHD1, ARPKD, PKD1,PKD2, PKD4, PKDTS, PRKCSH, G19P1, PCLD, SEC63). Other preffered targetsinclude any one or more of include one or more of: PCSK9; Hmgcr;SERPINA1; ApoB; and.or LDL.

It will be appreciated that methods of altering expression in the liverdo not involve alteration of the germline, which may be excluded onmoral grounds. In fact, although transfection of stem cells is envisageand certainly preferred in some embodiments, primary hepatocytes areparticularly preferred, particularly where they may show or bestimualred to show some regeneration.

Type II CRISPRS are particularly preferred, especially for use ineukaryotes, as in the present case, where livers are only found ineukaryotes, particularly vertbertate animals, in any case.

Use of the CRISPR-Cas systems to invoke a phenotypic change is aparticular advantage, especially in vivo. We have shown this in thepresent application.

Where therapeutic applications are envisaged, or for other genomeengineering in the liver, then where a correction is required it will beappreciated that following nicking or cleavage of the genomic DNAtarget, then correction via the HDR pathway is preferred. For geneknockdown, NHEJ is advantageous, however, correction via the HDR pathwayis preferred for therapy. In such circumstances, it is preferable todeliver a repair template. This is most preferably ssDNA although RNAvia a retroviral vector to provide a corresponding DNA template is alsopossible. The skilled person can readily put the invention into practicefrom the herein teachings contributing to the knowledge in the art; andin this regard mention is made that the skilled person from the hereinteachings contributing to the knowledge in the art can readilyappreciate and implement considerations as to homologous arm length.Mention is made of patent applications and publications including hereininventor Zhang, including those cited herein. The repair template ispreferably co-delivered with one or more elements of the CRISPR-Cassystem.

Also provided is a method of altering expression of at least one livergene product comprising introducing into a eukaryotic liver cell, forexample a hepatocyte, containing and expressing a DNA molecule having atarget sequence and encoding the gene product, an engineered,non-naturally occurring Clustered Regularly Interspaced ShortPalindromic Repeats (CRISPR)-CRISPR associated (Cas) (CRISPR-Cas) systemcomprising one or more vectors comprising:

a) a first regulatory element operable in a eukaryotic cell operablylinked to at least one nucleotide sequence encoding a CRISPR-Cas systemguide RNA that hybridizes with the target sequence, and

b) a second regulatory element operable in a eukaryotic cell operablylinked to a nucleotide sequence encoding a Type-II Cas9 protein,

wherein components (a) and (b) are located on same or different vectorsof the system, whereby the guide RNA targets the target sequence and theCas9 protein cleaves the DNA molecule, whereby expression of the atleast one liver gene product is altered; and, wherein the Cas9 proteinand the guide RNA do not naturally occur together.

Reference below to targets will be understood to be hepatic targets orgenes otherwise expressed in the liver unless otherwise apparent.

Any or all of the polynucleotide sequence encoding a CRISPR enzyme,guide sequence, tracr mate sequence or tracr sequence, may be RNA. Thepolynucleotides comprising the sequence encoding a CRISPR enzyme, theguide sequence, tracr mate sequence or tracr sequence may be RNA and maybe delivered via liposomes, nanoparticles, exosomes, microvesicles, or agene-gun.

It will be appreciated that where reference is made to a polynucleotide,which is RNA and is said to ‘comprise’ a feature such a tracr matesequence, the RNA sequence includes the feature. Where thepolynucleotide is DNA and is said to comprise a feature such a tracrmate sequence, the DNA sequence is or can be transcribed into the RNAincluding the feature at issue. Where the feature is a protein, such asthe CRISPR enzyme, the DNA or RNA sequence referred to is, or can be,translated (and in the case of DNA transcribed first).

Accordingly, in certain embodiments the invention provides a method ofmodifying the liver of an organism, e.g., mammal including human or anon-human mammal or organism by manipulation of a target sequence in agenomic locus of interest comprising delivering a non-naturallyoccurring or engineered composition comprising a viral or plasmid vectorsystem comprising one or more viral or plasmid vectors operably encodinga composition for expression thereof, wherein the composition comprises:(A) a non-naturally occurring or engineered composition comprising avector system comprising one or more vectors comprising I. a firstregulatory element operably linked to a CRISPR-Cas system chimeric RNA(chiRNA) polynucleotide sequence, wherein the polynucleotide sequencecomprises (a) a guide sequence capable of hybridizing to a targetsequence in a eukaryotic cell, (b) a tracr mate sequence, and (c) atracr sequence, and II. a second regulatory element operably linked toan enzyme-coding sequence encoding a CRISPR enzyme comprising at leastone or more nuclear localization sequences (or optionally at least oneor more nuclear localization sequences as some embodiments can involveno NLS), wherein (a), (b) and (c) are arranged in a 5′ to 3′orientation, wherein components I and II are located on the same ordifferent vectors of the system, wherein when transcribed, the tracrmate sequence hybridizes to the tracr sequence and the guide sequencedirects sequence-specific binding of a CRISPR complex to the targetsequence, and wherein the CRISPR complex comprises the CRISPR enzymecomplexed with (1) the guide sequence that is hybridized or hybridizableto the target sequence, and (2) the tracr mate sequence that ishybridized or hybridizable to the tracr sequence, or (B) a non-naturallyoccurring or engineered composition comprising a vector systemcomprising one or more vectors comprising I. a first regulatory elementoperably linked to (a) a guide sequence capable of hybridizing to atarget sequence in a eukaryotic cell, and (b) at least one or more tracrmate sequences, II. a second regulatory element operably linked to anenzyme-coding sequence encoding a CRISPR enzyme, and III. a thirdregulatory element operably linked to a tracr sequence, whereincomponents I, II and III are located on the same or different vectors ofthe system, wherein when transcribed, the tracr mate sequence hybridizesto the tracr sequence and the guide sequence directs sequence-specificbinding of a CRISPR complex to the target sequence, and wherein theCRISPR complex comprises the CRISPR enzyme complexed with (1) the guidesequence that is hybridized or hybridizable to the target sequence, and(2) the tracr mate sequence that is hybridized or hybridizable to thetracr sequence. In some embodiments, components I, II and III arelocated on the same vector. In other embodiments, components I and IIare located on the same vector, while component III is located onanother vector. In other embodiments, components I and III are locatedon the same vector, while component II is located on another vector. Inother embodiments, components II and III are located on the same vector,while component I is located on another vector. In other embodiments,each of components I, II and III is located on different vectors. Theinvention also provides a viral or plasmid vector system as describedherein.

Preferably, the vector is a viral vector, such as a lenti- or baculo- orpreferably adeno-viral/adeno-associated viral vectors, but other meansof delivery are known (such as yeast systems, microvesicles, geneguns/means of attaching vectors to gold nanoparticles) and are provided.In some embodiments, one or more of the viral or plasmid vectors may bedelivered via liposomes, nanoparticles, exosomes, microvesicles, or agene-gun.

By manipulation of a target sequence, Applicants also mean theepigenetic manipulation of a target sequence. This may be of thechromatin state of a target sequence, such as by modification of themethylation state of the target sequence (i.e. addition or removal ofmethylation or methylation patterns or CpG islands), histonemodification, increasing or reducing accessibility to the targetsequence, or by promoting 3D folding.

It will be appreciated that where reference is made to a method ofmodifying an organism or mammal including human or a non-human mammal ororganism by manipulation of a target sequence in a genomic locus ofinterest, this may apply to the organism (or mammal) as a whole or justa single cell or population of cells from that organism (if the organismis multicellular). In the case of humans, for instance, Applicantsenvisage, inter alia, a single cell or a population of cells and thesemay preferably be modified ex vivo and then re-introduced. In this case,a biopsy or other tissue or biological fluid sample may be necessary.Stem cells are also particularly preferred in this regard. But, ofcourse, in vivo embodiments are also envisaged.

In certain embodiments the invention provides a method of treating orinhibiting a condition caused by a defect in a target sequence in agenomic locus of interest in a subject (e.g., mammal or human) or anon-human subject (e.g., mammal) in need thereof comprising modifyingthe subject or a non-human subject by manipulation of the targetsequence and wherein the condition is susceptible to treatment orinhibition by manipulation of the target sequence comprising providingtreatment comprising: delivering a non-naturally occurring or engineeredcomposition comprising an AAV or lentivirus vector system comprising oneor more AAV or lentivirus vectors operably encoding a composition forexpression thereof, wherein the target sequence is manipulated by thecomposition when expressed, wherein the composition comprises: (A) anon-naturally occurring or engineered composition comprising a vectorsystem comprising one or more vectors comprising I. a first regulatoryelement operably linked to a CRISPR-Cas system chimeric RNA (chiRNA)polynucleotide sequence, wherein the polynucleotide sequence comprises(a) a guide sequence capable of hybridizing to a target sequence in aeukaryotic cell, (b) a tracr mate sequence, and (c) a tracr sequence,and II. a second regulatory element operably linked to an enzyme-codingsequence encoding a CRISPR enzyme comprising at least one or morenuclear localization sequences (or optionally at least one or morenuclear localization sequences as some embodiments can involve no NLS)wherein (a), (b) and (c) are arranged in a 5′ to 3′ orientation, whereincomponents I and II are located on the same or different vectors of thesystem, wherein when transcribed, the tracr mate sequence hybridizes tothe tracr sequence and the guide sequence directs sequence-specificbinding of a CRISPR complex to the target sequence, and wherein theCRISPR complex comprises the CRISPR enzyme complexed with (1) the guidesequence that is hybridized or hybridizable to the target sequence, and(2) the tracr mate sequence that is hybridized or hybridizable to thetracr sequence, or (B) a non-naturally occurring or engineeredcomposition comprising a vector system comprising one or more vectorscomprising I. a first regulatory element operably linked to (a) a guidesequence capable of hybridizing to a target sequence in a eukaryoticcell, and (b) at least one or more tracr mate sequences, II. a secondregulatory element operably linked to an enzyme-coding sequence encodinga CRISPR enzyme, and III. a third regulatory element operably linked toa tracr sequence, wherein components I, II and III are located on thesame or different vectors of the system, wherein when transcribed, thetracr mate sequence hybridizes to the tracr sequence and the guidesequence directs sequence-specific binding of a CRISPR complex to thetarget sequence, and wherein the CRISPR complex comprises the CRISPRenzyme complexed with (1) the guide sequence that is hybridized orhybridizable to the target sequence, and (2) the tracr mate sequencethat is hybridized or hybridizable to the tracr sequence. In someembodiments, components I, II and III are located on the same vector. Inother embodiments, components I and II are located on the same vector,while component III is located on another vector. In other embodiments,components I and III are located on the same vector, while component IIis located on another vector. In other embodiments, components II andIII are located on the same vector, while component I is located onanother vector. In other embodiments, each of components I, II and IIIis located on different vectors. The invention also provides a viral(e.g. AAV or lentivirus) vector system as described herein. and can bepart of a vector system as described herein.

Some methods of the invention can include inducing expression. Theorganism or subject is a eukaryote (including mammal including human) ora non-human eukaryote or a non-human animal or a non-human mammal,provided it has a liver or hepatic function. In some embodiments, theorganism or subject is a non-human animal, and may be an arthropod, forexample, an insect, or may be a nematode. In some methods of theinvention the organism or subject is a mammal or a non-human mammal. Anon-human mammal may be for example a rodent (preferably a mouse or arat), an ungulate, or a primate. In some methods of the invention theviral vector is an AAV or a lentivirus, and can be part of a vectorsystem as described herein. In some methods of the invention the CRISPRenzyme is a Cas9. In some methods of the invention the expression of theguide sequence is under the control of the T7 promoter and is driven bythe expression of T7 polymerase.

The invention in some embodiments comprehends a method of delivering aCRISPR enzyme comprising delivering to a cell mRNA encoding the CRISPRenzyme. In some of these methods the CRISPR enzyme is a Cas9.

The invention also provides methods of preparing the vector systems ofthe invention, in particular the viral vector systems as describedherein. The invention in some embodiments comprehends a method ofpreparing the AAV of the invention comprising transfecting plasmid(s)containing or consisting essentially of nucleic acid molecule(s) codingfor the AAV into AAV-infected cells, and supplying AAV rep and/or capobligatory for replication and packaging of the AAV. In some embodimentsthe AAV rep and/or cap obligatory for replication and packaging of theAAV are supplied by transfecting the cells with helper plasmid(s) orhelper virus(es). In some embodiments the helper virus is a poxvirus,adenovirus, herpesvirus or baculovirus. In some embodiments the poxvirusis a vaccinia virus. In some embodiments the cells are mammalian cells.And in some embodiments the cells are insect cells and the helper virusis baculovirus. In other embodiments, the virus is a lentivirus.

The invention further comprehends a composition of the invention or aCRISPR enzyme thereof (including or alternatively mRNA encoding theCRISPR enzyme) for use in medicine or in therapy. In some embodimentsthe invention comprehends a composition according to the invention or aCRISPR enzyme thereof (including or alternatively mRNA encoding theCRISPR enzyme) for use in a method according to the invention. In someembodiments the invention provides for the use of a composition of theinvention or a CRISPR enzyme thereof (including or alternatively mRNAencoding the CRISPR enzyme) in ex vivo gene or genome editing. Incertain embodiments the invention comprehends use of a composition ofthe invention or a CRISPR enzyme thereof (including or alternativelymRNA encoding the CRISPR enzyme) in the manufacture of a medicament forex vivo gene or genome editing or for use in a method according of theinvention. The invention comprehends in some embodiments a compositionof the invention or a CRISPR enzyme thereof (including or alternativelymRNA encoding the CRISPR enzyme), wherein the target sequence is flankedat its 3′ end by a PAM (protospacer adjacent motif) sequence comprising5′-motif, especially where the Cas9 is (or is derived from) S. pyogenesor S. aureus Cas9. For example, a suitable PAM is 5′-NRG or 5′-NNGRR(where N is any Nucleotide) for SpCas9 or SaCas9 enzymes (or derivedenzymes), respectively, as mentioned below.

It will be appreciated that SpCas9 or SaCas9 are those from or derivedfrom S. pyogenes or S. aureus Cas9. It may of course, be mutated orotherwise changed from the wild type to suit the intended use, asdescribed herein. The dual nciakse D10A mutant or variant is preferred,especially in combination with two overlapping guides directed asoppositing sites on differneing strands of the same chromosome.

Aspects of the invention comprehend improving the specificity of aCRISPR enzyme, e.g. Cas9, mediated gene targeting and reducing thelikelihood of off-target modification by the CRISPR enzyme, e.g. Cas9.The invention in some embodiments comprehends a method of modifying anorganism or a non-human organism by minimizing off-target modificationsby manipulation of a first and a second target sequence on oppositestrands of a DNA duplex in a genomic locus of interest in a cellcomprising delivering a non-naturally occurring or engineeredcomposition comprising:

I. a first CRISPR-Cas system chimeric RNA (chiRNA) polynucleotidesequence, wherein the first polynucleotide sequence comprises:

(a) a first guide sequence capable of hybridizing to the first targetsequence,

(b) a first tracr mate sequence, and

(c) a first tracr sequence,

II. a second CRISPR-Cas system chiRNA polynucleotide sequence, whereinthe second polynucleotide sequence comprises:

(a) a second guide sequence capable of hybridizing to the second targetsequence,

(b) a second tracr mate sequence, and

(c) a second tracr sequence, and

III. a polynucleotide sequence encoding a CRISPR enzyme comprising atleast one or more nuclear localization sequences and comprising one ormore mutations, wherein (a), (b) and (c) are arranged in a 5′ to 3′orientation, wherein when transcribed, the first and the second tracrmate sequence hybridize to the first and second tracr sequencerespectively and the first and the second guide sequence directssequence-specific binding of a first and a second CRISPR complex to thefirst and second target sequences respectively, wherein the first CRISPRcomplex comprises the CRISPR enzyme complexed with (1) the first guidesequence that is hybridized or hybridizable to the first targetsequence, and (2) the first tracr mate sequence that is hybridized orhybridizable to the first tracr sequence, wherein the second CRISPRcomplex comprises the CRISPR enzyme complexed with (1) the second guidesequence that is hybridized or hybridizable to the second targetsequence, and (2) the second tracr mate sequence that is hybridized orhybridizable to the second tracr sequence, wherein the polynucleotidesequence encoding a CRISPR enzyme is DNA or RNA, and wherein the firstguide sequence directs cleavage of one strand of the DNA duplex near thefirst target sequence and the second guide sequence directs cleavage ofthe other strand near the second target sequence inducing a doublestrand break, thereby modifying the organism or the non-human organismby minimizing off-target modifications.

In some methods of the invention any or all of the polynucleotidesequence encoding the CRISPR enzyme, the first and the second guidesequence, the first and the second tracr mate sequence or the first andthe second tracr sequence, is/are RNA. In further embodiments of theinvention the polynucleotides comprising the sequence encoding theCRISPR enzyme, the first and the second guide sequence, the first andthe second tracr mate sequence or the first and the second tracrsequence, is/are RNA and are delivered via liposomes, nanoparticles,exosomes, microvesicles, or a gene-gun. In certain embodiments of theinvention, the first and second tracr mate sequence share 100% identityand/or the first and second tracr sequence share 100% identity. In someembodiments, the polynucleotides may be comprised within a vector systemcomprising one or more vectors. In preferred embodiments of theinvention the CRISPR enzyme is a Cas9 enzyme, e.g. SpCas9. In an aspectof the invention the CRISPR enzyme comprises one or more mutations in acatalytic domain, wherein the one or more mutations are selected fromthe group consisting of D10A, E762A, H840A, N854A, N863A and D986A. In ahighly preferred embodiment the CRISPR enzyme has the D10A mutation. Inpreferred embodiments, the first CRISPR enzyme has one or more mutationssuch that the enzyme is a complementary strand nicking enzyme, and thesecond CRISPR enzyme has one or more mutations such that the enzyme is anon-complementary strand nicking enzyme. Alternatively the first enzymemay be a non-complementary strand nicking enzyme, and the second enzymemay be a complementary strand nicking enzyme.

In preferred methods of the invention the first guide sequence directingcleavage of one strand of the DNA duplex near the first target sequenceand the second guide sequence directing cleavage of the other strandnear the second target sequence results in a 5′ overhang. In embodimentsof the invention the 5′ overhang is at most 200 base pairs, preferablyat most 100 base pairs, or more preferably at most 50 base pairs. Inembodiments of the invention the 5′ overhang is at least 26 base pairs,preferably at least 30 base pairs or more preferably 34-50 base pairs.Most preferably, the overlap is between 5 and −1 base pairs.

The invention in some embodiments comprehends a method of modifying anorganism or a non-human organism by minimizing off-target modificationsby manipulation of a first and a second target sequence on oppositestrands of a DNA duplex in a genomic locus of interest in a cellcomprising delivering a non-naturally occurring or engineeredcomposition comprising a vector system comprising one or more vectorscomprising

I. a first regulatory element operably linked to

(a) a first guide sequence capable of hybridizing to the first targetsequence, and

(b) at least one or more tracr mate sequences,

II. a second regulatory element operably linked to

(a) a second guide sequence capable of hybridizing to the second targetsequence, and

(b) at least one or more tracr mate sequences,

III. a third regulatory element operably linked to an enzyme-codingsequence encoding a CRISPR enzyme, and

IV. a fourth regulatory element operably linked to a tracr sequence,

wherein components I, II, III and IV are located on the same ordifferent vectors of the system, when transcribed, the tracr matesequence hybridizes to the tracr sequence and the first and the secondguide sequence direct sequence-specific binding of a first and a secondCRISPR complex to the first and second target sequences respectively,wherein the first CRISPR complex comprises the CRISPR enzyme complexedwith (1) the first guide sequence that is hybridized or hybridizable tothe first target sequence, and (2) the tracr mate sequence that ishybridized or hybridizable to the tracr sequence, wherein the secondCRISPR complex comprises the CRISPR enzyme complexed with (1) the secondguide sequence that is hybridized or hybridizable to the second targetsequence, and (2) the tracr mate sequence that is hybridized orhybridizable to the tracr sequence, wherein the polynucleotide sequenceencoding a CRISPR enzyme is DNA or RNA, and wherein the first guidesequence directs cleavage of one strand of the DNA duplex near the firsttarget sequence and the second guide sequence directs cleavage of theother strand near the second target sequence inducing a double strandbreak, thereby modifying the organism or the non-human organism byminimizing off-target modifications.

The invention also provides a vector system as described herein. Thesystem may comprise one, two, three or four different vectors.Components I, II, III and IV may thus be located on one, two, three orfour different vectors, and all combinations for possible locations ofthe components are herein envisaged, for example: components I, II, IIIand IV can be located on the same vector; components I, II, III and IVcan each be located on different vectors; components I, II, II I and IVmay be located on a total of two or three different vectors, with allcombinations of locations envisaged, etc.

In some methods of the invention any or all of the polynucleotidesequence encoding the CRISPR enzyme, the first and the second guidesequence, the first and the second tracr mate sequence or the first andthe second tracr sequence, is/are RNA. In further embodiments of theinvention the first and second tracr mate sequence share 100% identityand/or the first and second tracr sequence share 100% identity. Inpreferred embodiments of the invention the CRISPR enzyme is a Cas9enzyme, e.g. SpCas9. In an aspect of the invention the CRISPR enzymecomprises one or more mutations in a catalytic domain, wherein the oneor more mutations are selected from the group consisting of D10A, E762A,H840A, N854A, N863A and D986A. In a highly preferred embodiment theCRISPR enzyme has the D10A mutation. In preferred embodiments, the firstCRISPR enzyme has one or more mutations such that the enzyme is acomplementary strand nicking enzyme, and the second CRISPR enzyme hasone or more mutations such that the enzyme is a non-complementary strandnicking enzyme. Alternatively the first enzyme may be anon-complementary strand nicking enzyme, and the second enzyme may be acomplementary strand nicking enzyme. In a further embodiment of theinvention, one or more of the viral vectors are delivered via liposomes,nanoparticles, exosomes, microvesicles, or a gene-gun.

In preferred methods of the invention the first guide sequence directingcleavage of one strand of the DNA duplex near the first target sequenceand the second guide sequence directing cleavage of other strand nearthe second target sequence results in a 5′ overhang. In embodiments ofthe invention the 5′ overhang is at most 200 base pairs, preferably atmost 100 base pairs, or more preferably at most 50 base pairs. Inembodiments of the invention the 5′ overhang is at least 26 base pairs,preferably at least 30 base pairs or more preferably 34-50 base pairs.

The invention in some embodiments comprehends a method of modifying agenomic locus of interest by minimizing off-target modifications byintroducing into a cell containing and expressing a double stranded DNAmolecule encoding a gene product of interest an engineered,non-naturally occurring CRISPR-Cas system comprising a Cas proteinhaving one or more mutations and two guide RNAs that target a firststrand and a second strand of the DNA molecule respectively, whereby theguide RNAs target the DNA molecule encoding the gene product and the Casprotein nicks each of the first strand and the second strand of the DNAmolecule encoding the gene product, whereby expression of the geneproduct is altered; and, wherein the Cas protein and the two guide RNAsdo not naturally occur together.

In preferred methods of the invention the Cas protein nicking each ofthe first strand and the second strand of the DNA molecule encoding thegene product results in a 5′ overhang. In embodiments of the inventionthe 5′ overhang is at most 200 base pairs, preferably at most 100 basepairs, or more preferably at most 50 base pairs. In embodiments of theinvention the 5′ overhang is at least 26 base pairs, preferably at least30 base pairs or more preferably 34-50 base pairs.

Embodiments of the invention also comprehend the guide RNAs comprising aguide sequence fused to a tracr mate sequence and a tracr sequence. Inan aspect of the invention the Cas protein is codon optimized forexpression in a eukaryotic cell, preferably a mammalian cell or a humancell. In further embodiments of the invention the Cas protein is a typeII CRISPR-Cas protein, e.g. a Cas 9 protein. In a highly preferredembodiment the Cas protein is a Cas9 protein, e.g. SpCas9. In aspects ofthe invention the Cas protein has one or more mutations selected fromthe group consisting of D10A, E762A, H840A, N854A, N863A and D986A. In ahighly preferred embodiment the Cas protein has the D10A mutation.

Aspects of the invention relate to the expression of the gene productbeing decreased or a template polynucleotide being further introducedinto the DNA molecule encoding the gene product or an interveningsequence being excised precisely by allowing the two 5′ overhangs toreanneal and ligate or the activity or function of the gene productbeing altered or the expression of the gene product being increased. Inan embodiment of the invention, the gene product is a protein.

The invention also comprehends an engineered, non-naturally occurringCRISPR-Cas system comprising a Cas protein having one or more mutationsand two guide RNAs that target a first strand and a second strandrespectively of a double stranded DNA molecule encoding a gene productin a cell, whereby the guide RNAs target the DNA molecule encoding thegene product and the Cas protein nicks each of the first strand and thesecond strand of the DNA molecule encoding the gene product, wherebyexpression of the gene product is altered; and, wherein the Cas proteinand the two guide RNAs do not naturally occur together.

In aspects of the invention the guide RNAs may comprise a guide sequencefused to a tracr mate sequence and a tracr sequence. In an embodiment ofthe invention the Cas protein is a type II CRISPR-Cas protein. In anaspect of the invention the Cas protein is codon optimized forexpression in a eukaryotic cell, preferably a mammalian cell or a humancell. In further embodiments of the invention the Cas protein is a typeII CRISPR-Cas protein, e.g. a Cas 9 protein. In a highly preferredembodiment the Cas protein is a Cas9 protein, e.g. SpCas9. In aspects ofthe invention the Cas protein has one or more mutations selected fromthe group consisting of D10A, E762A, H840A, N854A, N863A and D986A. In ahighly preferred embodiment the Cas protein has the D10A mutation.

Aspects of the invention relate to the expression of the gene productbeing decreased or a template polynucleotide being further introducedinto the DNA molecule encoding the gene product or an interveningsequence being excised precisely by allowing the two 5′ overhangs toreanneal and ligate or the activity or function of the gene productbeing altered or the expression of the gene product being increased. Inan embodiment of the invention, the gene product is a protein.

The invention also comprehends an engineered, non-naturally occurringvector system comprising one or more vectors comprising:

a) a first regulatory element operably linked to each of two CRISPR-Cassystem guide RNAs that target a first strand and a second strandrespectively of a double stranded DNA molecule encoding a gene product,

b) a second regulatory element operably linked to a Cas protein, whereincomponents (a) and (b) are located on same or different vectors of thesystem, whereby the guide RNAs target the DNA molecule encoding the geneproduct and the Cas protein nicks each of the first strand and thesecond strand of the DNA molecule encoding the gene product, wherebyexpression of the gene product is altered; and, wherein the Cas proteinand the two guide RNAs do not naturally occur together.

In aspects of the invention the guide RNAs may comprise a guide sequencefused to a tracr mate sequence and a tracr sequence. In an embodiment ofthe invention the Cas protein is a type II CRISPR-Cas protein. In anaspect of the invention the Cas protein is codon optimized forexpression in a eukaryotic cell, preferably a mammalian cell or a humancell. In further embodiments of the invention the Cas protein is a typeII CRISPR-Cas protein, e.g. a Cas 9 protein. In a highly preferredembodiment the Cas protein is a Cas9 protein, e.g. SpCas9. In aspects ofthe invention the Cas protein has one or more mutations selected fromthe group consisting of D10A, E762A, H840A, N854A, N863A and D986A. In ahighly preferred embodiment the Cas protein has the D10A mutation.

Aspects of the invention relate to the expression of the gene productbeing decreased or a template polynucleotide being further introducedinto the DNA molecule encoding the gene product or an interveningsequence being excised precisely by allowing the two 5′ overhangs toreanneal and ligate or the activity or function of the gene productbeing altered or the expression of the gene product being increased. Inan embodiment of the invention, the gene product is a protein. Inpreferred embodiments of the invention the vectors of the system areviral vectors. In a further embodiment, the vectors of the system aredelivered via liposomes, nanoparticles, exosomes, microvesicles, or agene-gun.

In one aspect, the invention provides a method of modifying a targetpolynucleotide in a liver cell. In some embodiments, the methodcomprises allowing a CRISPR complex to bind to the target polynucleotideto effect cleavage of said target polynucleotide thereby modifying thetarget polynucleotide, wherein the CRISPR complex comprises a CRISPRenzyme complexed with a guide sequence hybridized or hybridizable to atarget sequence within said target polynucleotide, wherein said guidesequence is linked to a tracr mate sequence which in turn hybridizes toa tracr sequence. In some embodiments, said cleavage comprises cleavingone or two strands at the location of the target sequence by said CRISPRenzyme. In some embodiments, said cleavage results in decreasedtranscription of a target gene. In some embodiments, the method furthercomprises repairing said cleaved target polynucleotide by homologousrecombination with an exogenous template polynucleotide, wherein saidrepair results in a mutation comprising an insertion, deletion, orsubstitution of one or more nucleotides of said target polynucleotide.In some embodiments, said mutation results in one or more amino acidchanges in a protein expressed from a gene comprising the targetsequence. In some embodiments, the method further comprises deliveringone or more vectors to said eukaryotic cell, wherein the one or morevectors drive expression of one or more of: the CRISPR enzyme, the guidesequence linked to the tracr mate sequence, and the tracr sequence. Insome embodiments, said vectors are delivered to the eukaryotic cell in asubject. In some embodiments, said modifying takes place in saideukaryotic cell in a cell culture. In some embodiments, the methodfurther comprises isolating said eukaryotic cell from a subject prior tosaid modifying. In some embodiments, the method further comprisesreturning said eukaryotic cell and/or cells derived therefrom to saidsubject.

In one aspect, the invention provides a method of modifying expressionof a polynucleotide in a liver cell. In some embodiments, the methodcomprises allowing a CRISPR complex to bind to the polynucleotide suchthat said binding results in increased or decreased expression of saidpolynucleotide; wherein the CRISPR complex comprises a CRISPR enzymecomplexed with a guide sequence hybridized or hybridizable to a targetsequence within said polynucleotide, wherein said guide sequence islinked to a tracr mate sequence which in turn hybridizes to a tracrsequence. In some embodiments, the method further comprises deliveringone or more vectors to said eukaryotic cells, wherein the one or morevectors drive expression of one or more of: the CRISPR enzyme, the guidesequence linked to the tracr mate sequence, and the tracr sequence.

In one aspect, the invention provides a method of generating a modelliver cell comprising a mutated disease gene. In some embodiments, adisease gene is any gene associated with an increase in the risk ofhaving or developing a disease. In some embodiments, the methodcomprises (a) introducing one or more vectors into a eukaryotic cell,wherein the one or more vectors drive expression of one or more of: aCRISPR enzyme, a guide sequence linked to a tracr mate sequence, and atracr sequence; and (b) allowing a CRISPR complex to bind to a targetpolynucleotide to effect cleavage of the target polynucleotide withinsaid disease gene, wherein the CRISPR complex comprises the CRISPRenzyme complexed with (1) the guide sequence that is hybridized orhybridizable to the target sequence within the target polynucleotide,and (2) the tracr mate sequence that is hybridized or hybridizable tothe tracr sequence, thereby generating a model eukaryotic cellcomprising a mutated disease gene. In some embodiments, said cleavagecomprises cleaving one or two strands at the location of the targetsequence by said CRISPR enzyme. In some embodiments, said cleavageresults in decreased transcription of a target gene. In someembodiments, the method further comprises repairing said cleaved targetpolynucleotide by homologous recombination with an exogenous templatepolynucleotide, wherein said repair results in a mutation comprising aninsertion, deletion, or substitution of one or more nucleotides of saidtarget polynucleotide. In some embodiments, said mutation results in oneor more amino acid changes in a protein expression from a genecomprising the target sequence.

In one aspect the invention provides for a method of selecting one ormore liver cell(s) by introducing one or more mutations in a gene in theone or more cell (s), the method comprising: introducing one or morevectors into the cell (s), wherein the one or more vectors driveexpression of one or more of: a CRISPR enzyme, a guide sequence linkedto a tracr mate sequence, a tracr sequence, and an editing template;wherein the editing template comprises the one or more mutations thatabolish CRISPR enzyme cleavage; allowing homologous recombination of theediting template with the target polynucleotide in the cell(s) to beselected; allowing a CRISPR complex to bind to a target polynucleotideto effect cleavage of the target polynucleotide within said gene,wherein the CRISPR complex comprises the CRISPR enzyme complexed with(1) the guide sequence that is hybridized or hybridizable to the targetsequence within the target polynucleotide, and (2) the tracr matesequence that is hybridized or hybridizable to the tracr sequence,wherein binding of the CRISPR complex to the target polynucleotideinduces cell death, thereby allowing one or more prokaryotic cell(s) inwhich one or more mutations have been introduced to be selected. In apreferred embodiment, the CRISPR enzyme is Cas9. Aspects of theinvention allow for selection of specific cells without requiring aselection marker or a two-step process that may include acounter-selection system.

In one aspect, the invention provides for methods of modifying a targetpolynucleotide in a liver cell. In some embodiments, the methodcomprises allowing a CRISPR complex to bind to the target polynucleotideto effect cleavage of said target polynucleotide thereby modifying thetarget polynucleotide, wherein the CRISPR complex comprises a CRISPRenzyme complexed with a guide sequence hybridized or hybridizable to atarget sequence within said target polynucleotide, wherein said guidesequence is linked to a tracr mate sequence which in turn hybridizes toa tracr sequence.

In other embodiments, this invention provides a method of modifyingexpression of a polynucleotide in a liver cell. The method comprisesincreasing or decreasing expression of a target polynucleotide by usinga CRISPR complex that binds to the polynucleotide.

Where desired, to effect the modification of the expression in a cell,one or more vectors comprising a tracr sequence, a guide sequence linkedto the tracr mate sequence, a sequence encoding a CRISPR enzyme isdelivered to a cell. In some methods, the one or more vectors comprisesa regulatory element operably linked to an enzyme-coding sequenceencoding said CRISPR enzyme comprising a nuclear localization sequence;and a regulatory element operably linked to a tracr mate sequence andone or more insertion sites for inserting a guide sequence upstream ofthe tracr mate sequence. When expressed, the guide sequence directssequence-specific binding of a CRISPR complex to a target sequence in acell. Typically, the CRISPR complex comprises a CRISPR enzyme complexedwith (1) the guide sequence that is hybridized or hybridizable to thetarget sequence, and (2) the tracr mate sequence that is hybridized orhybridizable to the tracr sequence.

In some methods, a target polynucleotide can be inactivated to effectthe modification of the expression in a cell. For example, upon thebinding of a CRISPR complex to a target sequence in a cell, the targetpolynucleotide is inactivated such that the sequence is not transcribed,the coded protein is not produced, or the sequence does not function asthe wild-type sequence does. For example, a protein or microRNA codingsequence may be inactivated such that the protein is not produced.

In certain embodiments, the CRISPR enzyme comprises one or moremutations selected from the group consisting of D10A, E762A, H840A,N854A, N863A or D986A and/or the one or more mutations is in a RuvC1 orHNH domain of the CRISPR enzyme or is a mutation as otherwise asdiscussed herein. In some embodiments, the CRISPR enzyme has one or moremutations in a catalytic domain, wherein when transcribed, the tracrmate sequence hybridizes to the tracr sequence and the guide sequencedirects sequence-specific binding of a CRISPR complex to the targetsequence, and wherein the enzyme further comprises a functional domain.In some embodiments, the functional domain is a transcriptionalactivation domain, preferably VP64. In some embodiments, the functionaldomain is a transcription repression domain, preferably KRAB. In someembodiments, the transcription repression domain is SID, or concatemersof SID (eg SID4X). In some embodiments, the functional domain is anepigenetic modifying domain, such that an epigenetic modifying enzyme isprovided. In some embodiments, the functional domain is an activationdomain, which may be the P65 activation domain.

In some embodiments, the CRISPR enzyme is a type I or III CRISPR enzyme,but is preferably a type II CRISPR enzyme. This type II CRISPR enzymemay be any Cas enzyme. A Cas enzyme may be identified as Cas9 as thiscan refer to the general class of enzymes that share homology to thebiggest nuclease with multiple nuclease domains from the type II CRISPRsystem. Most preferably, the Cas9 enzyme is from, or is derived from,spCas9 or saCas9. By derived, Applicants mean that the derived enzyme islargely based, in the sense of having a high degree of sequence homologywith, a wildtype enzyme, but that it has been mutated (modified) in someway as described herein.

It will be appreciated that the terms Cas and CRISPR enzyme aregenerally used herein interchangeably, unless otherwise apparent. Asmentioned above, many of the residue numberings used herein refer to theCas9 enzyme from the type II CRISPR locus in Streptococcus pyogenes.However, it will be appreciated that this invention includes many moreCas9s from other species of microbes, such as SpCas9, SaCa9, St1Cas9 andso forth.

An example of a codon optimized sequence, in this instance optimized forhumans (i.e. being optimized for expression in humans) is providedherein, see the SaCas9 human codon optimized sequence. Whilst this ispreferred, it will be appreciated that other examples are possible andcodon optimization for a host species is known.

Preferably, delivery is in the form of a vector which may be a viralvector, such as a lenti- or baculo- or preferablyadeno-viral/adeno-associated viral vectors, but other means of deliveryare known (such as yeast systems, microvesicles, gene guns/means ofattaching vectors to gold nanoparticles) and are provided. A vector maymean not only a viral or yeast system (for instance, where the nucleicacids of interest may be operably linked to and under the control of (interms of expression, such as to ultimately provide a processed RNA) apromoter), but also direct delivery of nucleic acids into a host cell.While in herein methods the vector may be a viral vector and this isadvantageously an AAV, other viral vectors as herein discussed can beemployed, such as lentivirus. For example, baculoviruses may be used forexpression in insect cells. These insect cells may, in turn be usefulfor producing large quantities of further vectors, such as AAV orlentivirus vectors adapted for delivery of the present invention. Alsoenvisaged is a method of delivering the present CRISPR enzyme comprisingdelivering to a cell mRNA encoding the CRISPR enzyme. It will beappreciated that in certain embodiments the CRISPR enzyme is truncated,and/or comprised of less than one thousand amino acids or less than fourthousand amino acids, and/or is a nuclease or nickase, and/or iscodon-optimized, and/or comprises one or more mutations, and/orcomprises a chimeric CRISPR enzyme, and/or the other options as hereindiscussed. AAV and lentiviral vectors are preferred.

In certain embodiments, the target sequence is flanked or followed, atits 3′ end, by a PAM suitable for the CRISPR enzyme, typically a Cas andin particular a Cas9.

For example, a suitable PAM is 5′-NRG or 5′-NNGRR for SpCas9 or SaCas9enzymes (or derived enzymes), respectively.

It will be appreciated that SpCas9 or SaCas9 are those from or derivedfrom S. pyogenes or S. aureus Cas9.

Some points in the present application are summarised below:

AAV2/8

Preferred delivery for the CRISPR-Cas system is through a viral vector.This vector may be a lentiviral vector or an AAV vector, as discussed atsome length herein. Whet we have particularly showed is that AAV is apreferred example of a viral vector. Within that, we gone on to showthat AAV8 and in particular AAV2/8 (AAV8 packaged with AAV2 packagingsignal ITR) is useful in delivery to the liver, especially in vivo.

Phenotypic Changes seen In Vivo

As discussed elsewhere, we have been able to show, in vivo, thatphenotypic change can be detected. This is a significant step forward asa deficiency often levelled at RNAi is that no lasting effect is seen.With the present invention, phenotypic change can be seen in the liverfor the first time. A preferred arrangement to achieve this is to usethat in Example 36. Important elements of this are preferred alone or incombination, namely:

Sa Cas9;

Use of a chimeric guide RNA comprising the guide, tracr sequence andtracr mate;

For the tracr sequence, Sa tracr is preferable to recruit the Sa Cas9;

AAV8 or more preferably AAV2/8;

For experimental purposes, Rosa26 is a useful negative control;

Although use of the CMV promoter in an AAV vector is helpful, use of aliver-specific promoter such as TBG is particularly effective;

The target or targets may be wide-ranging as CRISPR has been shown tohave broad applicability across targets, once they guides aresuccessfully delivered and the Css9 enzymes are suitably expressed.However, preferred targets in the liver (against which the guides may bedesigned) nevertheless include one or more of: PCSK9; Hmgcr; SERPINA1;ApoB; and.or LDL.

Accordingly, in some embodiments it is particularly preferred that theCas enzyme is an Sa Cas9. Preferably, the CRISPRS-Cas polynucleotidesequence is chimeric and preferably includes an Sa tracr where the Cas9is an Sa Cas9. A viral vector may be used which is preferably AAV2/8.Furthermore, a liver-specific promoter is ideal and a preferred exampleis TBG. All of these may be used in combination to provide a chimericCRISPRS-Cas polynucleotide sequence including an Sa tracr, wherein theCas9 is an SaCas9, and the vector is AAV2/8, with at least the Cas9under the control of a liver-specific such as TBG. Any of the abovetargets may be sued with this system, in particular ApoB due to itsimportance in obesity.

Yin and Anderson's later Nature Biotech Paper (NBT 2884, referencedherein) provides further support for the in vivo phenotypic changes thatwe have already shown.

Additional data that we provide in Example 37, then adds further supportby demonstrating efficient in vivo editing of somatic liver tissue viaCas9. Moreover, delivery via AAV2/8 and the use of an SaCas9 again showthe usefulness of this particular approach in vivo. The preferred ApoBwas again targeted.

Later examples 38 and 39 show excellent in vivo data for effecicacy ininducing a phenotypic change in vivo: specifically ApoB, a lipidmetabolism gene, whilst Example 40 shows the applicability of thetechnique to post-mitotic cells, of which liver is an important example.Example 41 shows that multiple epitope tags are preferable for detectionpurposes.

Although viral vectors are preferred, in some embodiments, the use ofcell penetrating peptides is a viable alternative and so is alsopreferred.

Accordingly, it is an object of the invention to not encompass withinthe invention any previously known product, process of making theproduct, or method of using the product such that Applicants reserve theright and hereby disclose a disclaimer of any previously known product,process, or method. It is further noted that the invention does notintend to encompass within the scope of the invention any product,process, or making of the product or method of using the product, whichdoes not meet the written description and enablement requirements of theUSPTO (35 U.S.C. § 112, first paragraph) or the EPO (Article 83 of theEPC), such that Applicants reserve the right and hereby disclose adisclaimer of any previously described product, process of making theproduct, or method of using the product.

It is noted that in this disclosure and particularly in the claimsand/or paragraphs, terms such as “comprises”, “comprised”, “comprising”and the like can have the meaning attributed to it in U.S. Patent law;e.g., they can mean “includes”, “included”, “including”, and the like;and that terms such as “consisting essentially of” and “consistsessentially of” have the meaning ascribed to them in U.S. Patent law,e.g., they allow for elements not explicitly recited, but excludeelements that are found in the prior art or that affect a basic or novelcharacteristic of the invention.

These and other embodiments are disclosed or are obvious from andencompassed by, the following Detailed Description.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

The novel features of the invention are set forth with particularity inthe appended claims. A better understanding of the features andadvantages of the present invention will be obtained by reference to thefollowing detailed description that sets forth illustrative embodiments,in which the principles of the invention are utilized, and theaccompanying drawings of which:

FIG. 1 shows a schematic model of the CRISPR system. The Cas9 nucleasefrom Streptococcus pyogenes is targeted to genomic DNA by a syntheticguide RNA (sgRNA) consisting of a 20-nt guide sequence and a scaffold.The guide sequence base-pairs with the DNA target, directly upstream ofa requisite 5′-NGG protospacer adjacent motif (PAM), and Cas9 mediates adouble-stranded break (DSB) ˜3 bp upstream of the PAM.

FIG. 2A-2F shows an exemplary CRISPR system, a possible mechanism ofaction, an example adaptation for expression in eukaryotic cells, andresults of tests assessing nuclear localization and CRISPR activity.FIG. 2C discloses SEQ ID NOS 607 and 608, respectively, in order ofappearance. FIG. 2E discloses SEQ ID NOS 609-611, respectively, in orderof appearance. FIG. 2F discloses SEQ ID NOS 612-616, respectively, inorder of appearance.

FIG. 3A-3D shows results of an evaluation of SpCas9 specificity for anexample target. FIG. 3A discloses SEQ ID NOS 617, 610 and 618-628,respectively, in order of appearance. FIG. 3C discloses SEQ ID NO: 617.

FIG. 4A-4G show an exemplary vector system and results for its use indirecting homologous recombination in eukaryotic cells. FIG. 4Ediscloses SEQ ID NO: 629. FIG. 4F discloses SEQ ID NOS 630 and 631,respectively, in order of appearance. FIG. 4G discloses SEQ ID NOS632-636, respectively, in order of appearance.

FIG. 5 provides a table of protospacer sequences (SEQ ID NOS 95, 94, 93,637-642, 97, 96, and 643-647, respectively, in order of appearance) andsummarizes modification efficiency results for protospacer targetsdesigned based on exemplary S. pyogenes and S. thermophilus CRISPRsystems with corresponding PAMs against loci in human and mouse genomes.Cells were transfected with Cas9 and either pre-crRNA/tracrRNA orchimeric RNA, and analyzed 72 hours after transfection. Percent indelsare calculated based on Surveyor assay results from indicated cell lines(N=3 for all protospacer targets, errors are S.E.M., N.D. indicates notdetectable using the Surveyor assay, and N.T. indicates not tested inthis study).

FIG. 6A-6C shows a comparison of different tracrRNA transcripts forCas9-mediated gene targeting. FIG. 6A discloses SEQ ID NOS 648 and 649,respectively, in order of appearance.

FIG. 7 shows a schematic of a surveyor nuclease assay for detection ofdouble strand break-induced micro-insertions and -deletions.

FIG. 8A-8B shows exemplary bicistronic expression vectors for expressionof CRISPR system elements in eukaryotic cells. FIG. 8A discloses SEQ IDNOS 650-652, respectively, in order of appearance. FIG. 8B discloses SEQID NOS 653, 184, and 185, respectively, in order of appearance.

FIG. 9A-9C shows histograms of distances between adjacent S. pyogenesSF370 locus 1 PAM (NGG) (FIG. 9A) and S. thermophilus LMD9 locus 2 PAM(NNAGAAW) (FIG. 9B) in the human genome; and distances for each PAM bychromosome (Chr) (FIG. 9C).

FIG. 10A-10D shows an exemplary CRISPR system, an example adaptation forexpression in eukaryotic cells, and results of tests assessing CRISPRactivity. FIG. 10B discloses SEQ ID NOS 654 and 655, respectively, inorder of appearance. FIG. 10C discloses SEQ ID NO: 656.

FIG. 11A-11C shows exemplary manipulations of a CRISPR system fortargeting of genomic loci in mammalian cells. FIG. 11A discloses SEQ IDNO: 657. FIG. 11B discloses SEQ ID NOS 658-660, respectively, in orderof appearance.

FIG. 12A-12B shows the results of a Northern blot analysis of crRNAprocessing in mammalian cells. FIG. 12A discloses SEQ ID NO: 661.

FIG. 13A-13B shows an exemplary selection of protospacers in the humanPVALB (SEQ ID NO: 662) and mouse Th loci (SEQ ID NO: 663).

FIG. 14 shows example protospacer and corresponding PAM sequence targetsof the S. thermophilus CRISPR system in the human EMX1 locus. FIG. 14discloses SEQ ID NO: 656.

FIG. 15 provides a table of sequences (SEQ ID NOS 664-671, 193-194, and672-673, respectively, in order of appearance) for primers and probesused for Surveyor, RFLP, genomic sequencing, and Northern blot assays.

FIG. 16A-16C shows exemplary manipulation of a CRISPR system withchimeric RNAs and results of SURVEYOR assays for system activity ineukaryotic cells. FIG. 16A discloses SEQ ID NO: 674.

FIG. 17A-17B shows a graphical representation of the results of SURVEYORassays for CRISPR system activity in eukaryotic cells.

FIG. 18 shows an exemplary visualization of some S. pyogenes Cas9 targetsites in the human genome using the UCSC genome browser. FIG. 18discloses SEQ ID NOS 675-753, respectively, in order of appearance.

FIG. 19A-19D shows a circular depiction of the phylogenetic analysisrevealing five families of Cas9s, including three groups of large Cas9s(˜1400 amino acids) and two of small Cas9s (˜1100 amino acids).

FIG. 20A-20F shows the linear depiction of the phylogenetic analysisrevealing five families of Cas9s, including three groups of large Cas9s(˜1400 amino acids) and two of small Cas9s (˜1100 amino acids).

FIG. 21A-21D shows genome editing via homologous recombination. (a)Schematic of SpCas9 nickase, with D10A mutation in the RuvC I catalyticdomain. (b) Schematic representing homologous recombination (HR) at thehuman EMX1 locus using either sense or antisense single strandedoligonucleotides as repair templates. The arrow above indicates sgRNAcleavage site; PCR primers for genotyping (Tables J and K) are indicatedas arrows in right panel. (c) Sequence of region modified by HR. d,SURVEYOR assay for wildtype (wt) and nickase (D10A) SpCas9-mediatedindels at the EMX1 target 1 locus (n=3). Arrows indicate positions ofexpected fragment sizes. FIG. 21C discloses SEQ ID NOS 754-756, 754,757, and 756, respectively, in order of appearance.

FIG. 22A-22B shows single vector designs for SpCas9. FIG. 22A disclosesSEQ ID NOS 758-760, respectively, in order of appearance. FIG. 22Bdiscloses SEQ ID NO: 761.

FIG. 23 shows a graph representing the length distribution of Cas9orthologs.

FIG. 24A-24M shows sequences where the mutation points are locatedwithin the SpCas9 gene. FIG. 24A-24M discloses the nucleotide sequenceas SEQ ID NO: 762 and the amino acid sequence as SEQ ID NO: 763.

FIG. 25A shows the Conditional Cas9, Rosa26 targeting vector map.

FIG. 25B shows the Constitutive Cas9, Rosa26 targeting vector map.

FIG. 26 shows a schematic of the important elements in the Constitutiveand Conditional Cas9 constructs.

FIG. 27 shows delivery and in vivo mouse brain Cas9 expression data.

FIG. 28A-28C shows RNA delivery of Cas9 and chimeric RNA into cells (A)Delivery of a GFP reporter as either DNA or mRNA into Neuro-2A cells.(B) Delivery of Cas9 and chimeric RNA against the Icam2 gene as RNAresults in cutting for one of two spacers tested. (C) Delivery of Cas9and chimeric RNA against the F7 gene as RNA results in cutting for oneof two spacers tested.

FIG. 29 shows how DNA double-strand break (DSB) repair promotes geneediting. In the error-prone non-homologous end joining (NHEJ) pathway,the ends of a DSB are processed by endogenous DNA repair machineries andrejoined together, which can result in random insertion/deletion (indel)mutations at the site of junction. Indel mutations occurring within thecoding region of a gene can result in frame-shift and a premature stopcodon, leading to gene knockout. Alternatively, a repair template in theform of a plasmid or single-stranded oligodeoxynucleotides (ssODN) canbe supplied to leverage the homology-directed repair (HDR) pathway,which allows high fidelity and precise editing.

FIG. 30A-30C shows anticipated results for HDR in HEK and HUES9 cells.(a) Either a targeting plasmid or an ssODN (sense or antisense) withhomology arms can be used to edit the sequence at a target genomic locuscleaved by Cas9. To assay the efficiency of HDR, we introduced a HindIIIsite into the target locus, which was PCR-amplified with primers thatanneal outside of the region of homology. Digestion of the PCR productwith HindIII reveals the occurrence of HDR events. (b) ssODNs, orientedin either the sense or the antisense (s or a) direction relative to thelocus of interest, can be used in combination with Cas9 to achieveefficient HDR-mediated editing at the target locus. A minimal homologyregion of 40 bp, and preferably 90 bp, is recommended on either side ofthe modification. (c) Example of the effect of ssODNs on HDR in the EMX1locus is shown using both wild-type Cas9 and Cas9 nickase (D10A). EachssODN contains homology arms of 90 bp flanking a 12-bp insertion of tworestriction sites. FIG. 30B discloses SEQ ID NOS 754-756, 754, 757, and756, respectively, in order of appearance.

FIG. 31A-31C shows the repair strategy for Cystic Fibrosis delta F508mutation. FIG. 31A discloses the nucleotide sequence as SEQ ID NO: 764and the amino acid sequence as 765. FIG. 31B discloses SEQ ID NO: 674.FIG. 31C discloses the nucleotide sequence as SEQ ID NO: 766 and theamino acid sequence as SEQ ID NO: 767.

FIG. 32A-32B (a) shows a schematic of the GAA repeat expansion in FXNintron 1 and (b) shows a schematic of the strategy adopted to excise theGAA expansion region using the CRISPR/Cas system.

FIG. 33 shows a screen for efficient SpCas9 mediated targeting of Tet1-3and Dnmt1, 3a and 3b gene loci. Surveyor assay on DNA from transfectedN2A cells demonstrates efficient DNA cleavage by using different gRNAs.

FIG. 34 shows a strategy of multiplex genome targeting using a 2-vectorsystem in an AAV1/2 delivery system. Tet1-3 and Dnmt1, 3a and 3b gRNAunder the control of the U6 promoter. GFP-KASH under the control of thehuman synapsin promoter. Restriction sides shows simple gRNA replacementstrategy by subcloning. HA-tagged SpCas9 flanked by two nuclearlocalization signals (NLS) is shown. Both vectors are delivered into thebrain by AAV1/2 virus in a 1:1 ratio.

FIG. 35 shows verification of multiplex DNMT targeting vector #1functionality using Surveyor assay. N2A cells were co-transfected withthe DNMT targeting vector #1 (+) and the SpCas9 encoding vector fortesting SpCas9 mediated cleavage of DNMTs genes family loci. gRNA only(−) is negative control. Cells were harvested for DNA purification anddownstream processing 48 h after transfection.

FIG. 36 shows verification of multiplex DNMT targeting vector #2functionality using Surveyor assay. N2A cells were co-transfected withthe DNMT targeting vector #1 (+) and the SpCas9 encoding vector fortesting SpCas9 mediated cleavage of DNMTs genes family loci. gRNA only(−) is negative control. Cells were harvested for DNA purification anddownstream processing 48 h after transfection.

FIG. 37 shows schematic overview of short promoters and short polyAversions used for HA-SpCas9 expression in vivo. Sizes of the encodingregion from L-ITR to R-ITR are shown on the right.

FIG. 38 shows schematic overview of short promoters and short polyAversions used for HA-SaCas9 expression in vivo. Sizes of the encodingregion from L-ITR to R-ITR are shown on the right.

FIG. 39 shows expression of SpCas9 and SaCas9 in N2A cells.Representative Western blot of HA-tagged SpCas9 and SaCas9 versionsunder the control of different short promoters and with or short polyA(spA) sequences. Tubulin is loading control. mCherry (mCh) is atransfection control. Cells were harvested and further processed forWestern blotting 48 h after transfection.

FIG. 40 shows screen for efficient SaCas9 mediated targeting of Tet3gene locus. Surveyor assay on DNA from transfected N2A cellsdemonstrates efficient DNA cleavage by using different gRNAs with NNGGGTPUM sequence. GFP transfected cells and cells expressing only SaCas9 arecontrols.

FIG. 41 shows expression of HA-SaCas9 in the mouse brain. Animals wereinjected into dentate gyri with virus driving expression of HA-SaCas9under the control of human Synapsin promoter. Animals were sacrificed 2weeks after surgery. HA tag was detected using rabbit monoclonalantibody C29F4 (Cell Signaling). Cell nuclei stained in blue with DAPIstain.

FIG. 42 shows expression of SpCas9 and SaCas9 in cortical primaryneurons in culture 7 days after transduction. Representative Westernblot of HA-tagged SpCas9 and SaCas9 versions under the control ofdifferent promoters and with bgh or short polyA (spA) sequences. Tubulinis loading control.

FIG. 43 shows LIVE/DEAD stain of primary cortical neurons 7 days aftertransduction with AAV1 particles carrying SpCas9 with differentpromoters and multiplex gRNAs constructs (example shown on the lastpanel for DNMTs). Neurons after AAV transduction were compared withcontrol untransduced neurons. The nuclei indicate permeabilized, deadcells (second line of panels). Live cells are in the third line ofpanels.

FIG. 44 shows LIVE/DEAD stain of primary cortical neurons 7 days aftertransduction with AAV1 particles carrying SaCas9 with differentpromoters. The nuclei indicate permeabilized, dead cells (second line ofpanels). Live cells are-in the third line of panels.

FIG. 45 shows comparison of morphology of neurons after transductionwith AAV1 virus carrying SpCas9 and gRNA multiplexes for TETs and DNMTsgenes loci. Neurons without transduction are shown as a control.

FIG. 46 shows verification of multiplex DNMT targeting vector #1functionality using Surveyor assay in primary cortical neurons. Cellswere co-transduced with the DNMT targeting vector #1 and the SpCas9viruses with different promoters for testing SpCas9 mediated cleavage ofDNMTs genes family loci.

FIG. 47 shows in vivo efficiency of SpCas9 cleavage in the brain. Micewere injected with AAV1/2 virus carrying gRNA multiplex targeting DNMTfamily genes loci together with SpCas9 viruses under control of 2different promoters: mouse Mecp2 and rat Map 1b. Two weeks afterinjection brain tissue was extracted and nuclei were prepped and sortedusing FACS, based on the GFP expression driven by Synapsin promoter fromgRNA multiplex construct. After gDNA extraction Surveyor assay wasrun. + indicates GFP positive nuclei and − control, GFP-negative nucleifrom the same animal. Numbers on the gel indicate assessed SpCas9efficiency.

FIG. 48 shows purification of GFP-KASH labeled cell nuclei fromhippocampal neurons. The outer nuclear membrane (ONM) of the cellnuclear membrane is tagged with a fusion of GFP and the KASH proteintransmembrane domain. Strong GFP expression in the brain after one weekof stereotactic surgery and AAV1/2 injection. Density gradientcentrifugation step to purify cell nuclei from intact brain. Purifiednuclei are shown.

FIG. 49 shows efficiency of SpCas9 cleavage in the mouse brain. Micewere injected with AAV1/2 virus carrying gRNA multiplex targeting TETfamily genes loci together with SpCas9 viruses under control of 2different promoters: mouse Mecp2 and rat Map 1b. Three weeks afterinjection brain tissue was extracted, nuclei were prepped and sortedusing FACS, based on the GFP expression driven by Synapsin promoter fromgRNA multiplex construct. After gDNA extraction Surveyor assay wasrun. + indicates GFP positive nuclei and − control, GFP-negative nucleifrom the same animal. Numbers on the gel indicate assessed SpCas9efficiency.

FIG. 50 shows GFP-KASH expression in cortical neurons in culture.Neurons were transduced with AAV1 virus carrying gRNA multiplexconstructs targeting TET genes loci. The strongest signal localizearound cells nuclei due to KASH domain localization.

FIG. 51 shows (top) a list of spacing (as indicated by the pattern ofarrangement for two PAM sequences) between pairs of guide RNAs (SEQ IDNOS 768-784, respectively, in order of appearance). Only guide RNA pairssatisfying patterns 1, 2, 3, 4 exhibited indels when used withSpCas9(D10A) nickase. (bottom) Gel images showing that combination ofSpCas9(D10A) with pairs of guide RNA satisfying patterns 1, 2, 3, 4 ledto the formation of indels in the target site.

FIG. 52 shows a list of U6 reverse primer sequences (SEQ ID NOS 785-831and 787, respectively, in order of appearance) used to generate U6-guideRNA expression casssettes. Each primer needs to be paired with the U6forward primer “gcactgagggcctatttcccatgattc” (SEQ ID NO: 1) to generateamplicons containing U6 and the desired guide RNA.

FIG. 53 shows a Genomic sequence map from the human Emx1 locus showingthe locations of the 24 patterns listed in FIG. 33. FIG. 53 disclosesthe nucleotide sequence as SEQ ID NO: 832 and the amino acid sequencesas SEQ ID NOS 833-836, respectively, in order of appearance.

FIG. 54 shows on (right) a gel image indicating the formation of indelsat the target site when variable 5′ overhangs are present after cleavageby the Cas9 nickase targeted by different pairs of guide RNAs. on (left)a table indicating the lane numbers of the gel on the right and variousparameters including identifying the guide RNA pairs used and the lengthof the 5′ overhang present following cleavage by the Cas9 nickase.

FIG. 55 shows a Genomic sequence map from the human Emx1 locus showingthe locations of the different pairs of guide RNAs that result in thegel patterns of FIG. 54 (right) and which are further described inExample 35. FIG. 55 discloses the nucleotide sequence as SEQ ID NO: 832and the amino acid sequences as SEQ ID NOS 833-836, respectively, inorder of appearance.

FIG. 56 shows a Representative Surveyor Gel showing genomic cleavage bySaCas9.

FIG. 57 shows Genome Cleavage Efficiency of PAM Sequences (All targets).

FIG. 58 shows Genome Cleavage Efficiency of PAM Sequences (Cleavedtargets)

FIG. 59 shows Genome Cleavage Efficiency of PAM Sequences (All targets,discard low-efficiency and orphan targets).

FIG. 60 shows Genome Cleavage Efficiency of PAM Sequences (Cleavedtargets, discard low-efficiency and orphan targets).

FIG. 61 shows a Sequence Logo for Working Cleaved Spacers & PAMs (Newendogenous genome test showing that T is not required).

FIG. 62 shows Liver Tissue Slice Immunohistochemistry Staining Imagefrom AAV-CMV-EGFP and AAV-CMV-SaCas9-U6-sgRNA(Pcsk9) injected animal(Verification of SaCas9 protein expression, 2 weeks post injection).

FIG. 63 shows Cleavage of Liver Tissue by SaCas9 delivered via tail-veininjection of AAV2/8 virus(1 week time points).

FIG. 64 shows a Time Course Assay for Cleavage of Liver Tissue by SaCas9delivered via tail-vein injection of AAV2/8(AAV2/8-SaCas9-U6-sgRNA(Pcsk9)) virus.

FIG. 65 shows screening for functional CRISPR/Cas targets in human 293FTcells after delivery of SaCas9 and U6-sgRNA cassette targeting humanSERPINA1 gene loci, followed by surveyor assay and gel analysis of 12 ofthe total 24 different spacer designs of sgRNA-expressing dsDNAtargeting human SERPINA1 gene, the DNA Ladder is to the left.

FIG. 66 shows gel analysis of 12 samples, for each of the 6 spacerdesigns of sgRNA-expressing dsDNA were co-transfected with SaCas9plasmid into Mouse Hepatocyte cell line, two replica were placed next toeach other. The DNA Ladder is to the left.

FIG. 67 shows Acute dissected liver tissue from mouse injected with TBGversion vs. CMV version of EGFP (6 days post injection, GFP channelimage, 10×).

FIG. 68A-68B shows (A) Design of AAV vector for packaging of SaCas9 andguide RNA expression systems with the ubiquitous mammalian CMV promoterfor delivery into a wide range of tissues. (B) Design of AAV vector forpackaging of SaCas9 and guide RNA expression systems with theliver-specific TBG promoter for targeting hepatocytes in vivo. ITR, AAVinverted terminal repeats. hSaCas9, human codon optimized SaCas9. NLS,nuclear localization signal. HA, Human influenza hemagglutinin derivedtag. bGHpA, bovine growth hormone polyadenylation signal. U6, human U6promoter. sgRNA, single-guide RNA.

FIG. 69A-69B shows (A) Surveyor assay results showing genomicmodification rate for liver tissues from mouse injected with AAV2/8expressing SaCas9 targeting mouse Pcsk9 gene or control AAV2/8 virusexpressing EGFP reporter gene. All samples were taken 1 wk after tailvein injection. (B) Statistics summarizing cleavage efficiency from allthree time points collected from mouse injected with AAV2/8 expressingeither SaCas9 targeting mouse Pcsk9 gene.

FIG. 70A-70D shows a biochemical screen for small Cas9 orthologs. (a)Phylogenetic tree of Cas9 orthologs, with subfamily and sizes (aminoacids) indicated. Conserved nuclease domains are in boxes. (b) Schematicillustrating in vitro cleavage-based method used to identify protospaceradjacent motifs (PAMs). (c) Consensus PAMs for eight Cas9 orthologs fromsequencing of cleaved fragments. (d) Biochemical cleavage reaction usingorthologs and sgRNAs targeting different loci bearing the putative PAMs.Triangles indicate cleavage fragments. FIG. 70B discloses SEQ ID NOS837-838 and 837, respectively, in order of appearance.

FIG. 71A-71F shows in vitro characterization of Staphylococcus aureusCas9. (a) Schematic showing the structure of S. aureus sgRNA. Indelsvary depending on (b) length of guide sequence or (c) repeat:anti-repeatduplex. (d) Consensus PAM for SaCas9 in HEK 293FT cells. Pooled indelvalues for all putative PAM 4-base combinations (top, n≥3) and overallsequence logo (n=116, bottom) are shown. SpCas9 and SaCas9 cleavageefficiency comparison for e, genomic target sites and f, genome-wideoff-target loci (error bars indicate Wilson intervals). Off-target (OT)sequences with significant indels are above graph. n=3, error bars S.E.Munless otherwise noted; N.D. not detectable. FIG. 71A discloses SEQ IDNO: 839. FIG. 71F discloses SEQ ID NOS 408, 414, 426, and 429,respectively, in order of appearance.

FIG. 72A-72E shows AAV delivery of S. aureus Cas into live animals. (a)Schematics illustrating AAV single-vector system (top) and experimentaltimeline (bottom). (b) Mouse Pcsk9 locus showing SaCas9 targetlocations. (c) Time course of liver tissue indel formation at targets 1and 6 post injection of AAV2/8 particles (up to 2 animals each; errorbars represent liver tissue pieces). (d) Indel formation at target 6 at1 and 3 weeks post-injection. Each lane represents a piece of livertissue. Triangles indicate cleavage fragments. (e) Representativechromatogram and indels generated by SaCas9 in vivo. FIG. 72B disclosesSEQ ID NOS 840-843, respectively, in order of appearance. FIG. 72Ediscloses SEQ ID NOS 844-850, respectively, in order of appearance.

FIG. 73A-73B shows a schematic of CRISPR-Cas loci of six orthologs fromtwo subfamilies of Type II CRISPR-Cas systems. Spacer or “guide”sequences are shown followed by direct repeat. Predicted tracrRNAs areshown, and folded based on the Constraint Generation RNA folding model.FIG. 73 discloses SEQ ID NOS 851-867, top to bottom, left to right,respectively, in order of appearance.

FIG. 74 shows a stacked bar graph indicating the fraction of targetscleaved at 2, 3, 4, or 5-bp upstream of PAM for each Cas9 ortholog; allCas9s cleave most frequently at 3-bp upstream of PAM (triangle). FIG. 74discloses SEQ ID NO: 868.

FIG. 75A-75B shows: (a) SURVEYOR assays showing indel formation at humanendogenous loci from co-transfection of Cas9 orthologs and sgRNA in HEK293FT cells. (b) SaCas9 cleaves multiple targets with high efficiency.PAM sequences for individual targets are shown above each lane, withconsensus sequences for each Cas9. Triangles indicate cleaved fragments.

FIG. 76A-76B shows: (a) histograms of distances between adjacentStaphylococcus aureus subsp. aureus Type II CRISPR PAM (NNGRR) in thehuman genome (GRCh38). (b) Distances for each PAM by chromosome.

FIG. 77A-77B shows the location of SaCas9 targets and PAMs within themouse Pcsk9 gene locus (SEQ ID NO: 869). b, Indels produced at targetsites from transfection of mouse liver hepatoma (Hepa1-6) cell line.Arrows indicate cleavage sites.

FIG. 78A shows that guide (target) 1 induced the highest percentage ofindels in ApoB.

FIG. 78B shows the results of a Surveyor nuclease gel assay for indelformation efficiency, 4 weeks post-injection.

FIG. 79 shows oil red staining to detect hepatic lipid accumulationphenotype in vivo following AAV-Cas9-sgRNA delivery. The scale bar ineach square represents 20 micrometres.

FIG. 80 shows that 21 nucleotudes nts/base pairs (bp), represented bythe grey bars is the optimal spacer length, at least compared to 20 or22 base pairs across a range of targets and within two different genes(AAVS1 and EMX1).

FIG. 81 shows whether a guide sequence could be inserted into the Cas9intronic sequence.

FIG. 82 shows that the full-length H1 promoter is still weaker than U6promoter, as the U6 shows increased indel percentage formation for eachtarget tested.

FIG. 83 shows that short H1 promoter is weaker than the full-length H1

FIG. 84 shows distance between the 5′ ends of two guide sequences in aconstruct measured in relation to the cleavage efficiency of the D10ASaCAs9 double nickase.

FIG. 85A-85H (Example 40) shows CRISPR-Cas9 system delivery andtargeting of Mecp2 locus in the mouse brain. (a) AAV-SpCas9 andAAV-SpGuide(Mecp2) expression vectors. The sgRNA vector containsencoding sequence of the GFP-KASH fusion protein for identification oftransduced neurons. (b) Expression of HA-Cas9 and GFP-KASH in the dorsaldentate gyrus (DG) of mouse hippocampus. Scale bar, 100 μm. (c)Quantification of cells efficiently targeted by the dual-vectorCas9-CRISPR system. (d) Graphical representation of the mouse Mecp2locus showing Cas9 target location; sgRNA indicated. PAM sequence.Representative mutation patterns detected by sequencing of Mecp2 locuswere shown (e) SURVEYOR™ assay gel showing modification of the Mecp2locus, 2 weeks after AAV delivery in the DG region. (f) Western blotanalysis of MeCP2 protein expression in the targeted brain region andquantification of MeCP2 protein levels in dorsal DG (t-test, **p<0.001,n=4 from 3 animals, error bars: s.e.m.). (g) Images of the dorsal DGregion, 2 weeks after CRISPR-Cas9 targeting of Mecp2 locus. Scale bar,150 (h) Quantification of MeCP2 positive cells population within alldetected cells (DAPI staining) in the targeted brain region in compareto control collateral site (t-test, ****p<0.0001, n=290 and 249 cellsfrom 2 animals, respectively; error bars: s.e.m). (ITR—inverted terminalrepeat; HA—hemagglutinin tag; NLS—nuclear localization signal;spA—synthetic polyadenylation signal; U6—PolIII promoter; sgRNA—singleguide RNA; hSyn—human synapsin 1 promoter; GFP—green fluorescentprotein; KASH—Klarsicht, ANC1, Syne Homology nuclear transmembranedomain; bGH pA—bovine growth hormone polyadenylatio signal;WPRE—Woodchuck Hepatitis virus posttranscriptional regulatory element).FIG. 85D discloses SEQ ID NOS 870-884, respectively, in order ofappearance.

FIG. 86A-86B (Example 40) shows analysis of gene expression inCas9-mediated MeCP2 knockdown neurons. (a) Strategy for cell nucleipurification of CRISPR-Cas9 targeted cells from the mouse brain. (b)Hierarchical clustering of differentially expressed genes (t-test,p<0.01, n=19 populations of sorted nuclei from 8 animals) detected byRNAseq. Relative log 2(TPM+1) expression levels of genes are normalizedfor each row. Each column represents a population of targeted 100neuronal nuclei FACS sorted from the isolated, dentate gyrus populationof cells, either from control or Mecp2 sgRNA transduced animals, asindicated.

FIG. 87A-87E (Example 40) shows cell-autonomous defects in cellularresponse properties of neurons after CRISPR-mediated MeCP2 knockdown.(a) Cartoon showing in vivo experiment configuration from mouse visualcortex and visual stimulation parameter. GFP⁺ neuron is shown. Scalebar, 20 (b) Cartoon showing recording configuration in layer 2/3excitatory neurons that receive both contra- and ipsilateral eyespecific input. (c) Normalized spike shape shows regular spikingexcitatory neurons. (d,e) Average OSI (d) and evoked FR (e) weremeasured from GFP⁺ cells expressing Mecp2 and control sgRNA,respectively (t-test, *p<0.05; numbers in graph indicate numbers ofrecorded cells; n=2-3 animals; error bars: s.e.m).

FIG. 88A-88F (Example 40) shows simultaneous, multiplex gene editing inthe mouse brain. (a) Schematic illustration of CRISPR-Cas9 systemdesigned for multiplex genome targeting. (b) Graphical representation oftargeted DNMT mouse loci. Guide RNAs are indicated. PAM sequences. (c)SURVEYOR™ assay gel showing modification of DNMTs loci in FACS sortedGFP-KASH positive cells, 4 weeks after AAV delivery in the DG region.(d) Deep sequencing-based analysis of DNMTs loci modification in singlecells, showing co-occurrence of modification in multiple loci. (e)Western blot analysis for Dnmt3a and Dnmt1 proteins after in vivodelivery of CRISPR-Cas9 system targeting DNMT family genes (top).Western blot quantification of Dnmt3a and Dnmt1 protein levels in DGafter in vivo CRISPR-Cas9 targeting (bottom; t-test, **p<0.001, *p<0.05,Dnmt3a: n=7; Dnmt1: n=5 from 5 animals; error bars: s.e.m). (f)Contextual learning deficits, 8 weeks after targeting of DNMT genesusing SpCas9 in the DG region of hippocampus, tested in training andaltered context (t-test, ***p<0.0001, n=18 animals, 2 independentexperiments; error bars: s.e.m). FIG. 88B discloses SEQ ID NOS 885-890,respectively, in order of appearance.

FIG. 89A-89F (Example 40) shows cloning and expression of HA-taggedSpCas9 (HA-SpCas9) for AAV packaging. (a) Schematic overview ofdifferent cloning strategies to minimize SpCas9 expression cassette sizeusing short rat Map1b promotor (pMap1b), a truncated version of themouse Mecp2 promoter (pMecp2) and a short polyA motif (spA). (b) Westernblot analysis of primary cortical neuron culture expressing HA-SpCas9using different SpCas9 expression cassettes. (c) Mecp2 promoter drivesHA-SpCas9 (red) expression in neurons (Map1b, NeuN; arrows) but not inastroglia (GFAP, arrowheads). Co-expressioin of HA-SpCas9 with GFP-KASHis shown (bottom). Nuclei were labeled with DAPI. Scale bars, 20 (d)Schematic overview of GFP-labeling. Enhanced green fluorescent protein(GFP) fused to the nuclear transmembrane KASH domain and integration ofGFP-KASH to the outer nuclear membrane is illustrated. (e) Co-infectionefficiency calculation, showing populations of cell expressing bothHA-SpCas9 and GFP-KASH (n=973 neurons from 3 cultures; error bars:s.e.m). (f) Cells were stained with LIFE/DEAD® kit 7 days after virusdelivery. Quantification of DAPI⁺ and dead (DEAD⁺) cells (control n=518DAPI⁺ nuclei; SpCas9/GFP-KASH n=1003 DAPI⁺ nuclei from 2 cultures; errorbars: s.e.m). (ITR—inverted terminal repeat; HA—hemagglutinin tag;NLS—nuclear localization signal; spA—synthetic polyadenylation signal;U6—PolIII promoter; sgRNA—single guide RNA; hSyn—human synapsin 1promoter; GFP—green fluorescent protein; KASH—Klarsicht, ANC1, SyneHomology nuclear transmembrane domain; bGH pA—bovine growth hormonepolyadenylation signal; WPRE—Woodchuck Hepatitis virusposttranscriptional regulatory element).

FIG. 90A-90B (Example 40) shows targeting of Mecp2 in Neuro-2a cells.(a) Mecp2 targeting sequences and corresponding protospacer adjacentmotifs (PAM). (b) Evaluation of 6 Mecp2 sgRNAs co-transfected withSpCas9 into Neuro-2a cells. Locus modification efficiencies wereanalyzed 48 h after transfection using SURVEYOR™ assay. FIG. 90Adiscloses SEQ ID NOS 891-894, 872, and 895, respectively, in order ofappearance.

FIG. 91A-91D (Example 40) shows CRISPR-SpCas9 targeting of Mecp2 inprimary cortical neurons. (a) Immunofluorescent staining of MeCP2 (red)in cultured neurons 7 days after AAV-CRISPR transduction (GFP-KASH).Nuclei were labeled with DAPI. Scale bar, 20 μm. (b) Evaluation of Mecp2locus targeting using SpCas9 or dSpCas9, together with Mecp2 sgRNA orcontrol (targeting bacterial lacZ gene) sgRNA, using SURVEYOR™ assaygel. (c) Quantification of MeCP2 positive nuclei in targeted populationof neurons (GFP⁺). (d) Western blot of MeCP2 protein levels afterCRISPR-SpCas9 targeting of Mecp2 locus and quantification of MeCP2protein levels (t-test, **p<0.001, n=5 from 3 cultures, error bars:s.e.m).

FIG. 92A-92E (Example 40) shows morphological changes in dendritic treeof neurons after SpCas9-mediated MeCP2 knockdown in vitro. (a) Reducedcomplexity of dendritic tree in neurons after CRISPR-SpCas9 targeting ofMecp2 locus. Scale bar, 20 μm. (b) Changes in dendritic spinesmorphology in neurons targeted with SpCas9 and Mecp2 sgRNA. Scale bar,10 μm. Morphology of cells was visualized with co-transfection withmCherry construct. Cells for morphology analysis were chosen based onthe result of Mecp2 staining. (c) Dendritic tree morphology assessedwith number of dendritic ends and (d) Sholl analysis (t-test,***p<0.0001, n=40 from 2 cultures). (e) Spine density quantification(t-test, ***p<0 0.0001, n=40 from 2 cultures, error bars: s.e.m).

FIG. 93 (Example 40) shows RNAseq of neuronal nuclei from controlanimals and SpCas9-mediated Mecp2 knockdown. Box plot presenting thenumber of detected genes across the RNA-seq libraries (19 libraries eachof 100 nuclei taken from control sgRNA or Mecp2 sgRNA transduced nuclei;n=4 animals/group) per quantile of expression level. All genes aredivided to 10 quantiles by their mean log 2(TPM+1) expression level,then for each quantile the number of genes that are detected (log2(TPM+1)>2) was counted in each sample.

FIG. 94A-94B (Example 40) shows multiplex genome targeting of DNMTfamily members in vitro. (a) Dnmt3a, Dnmt1 and Dnmt3b targetingsequences and corresponding protospacer adjacent motifs (PAM). (b)SURVEYOR™ nuclease assay analysis of Neuro-2a cells 48 hours aftertransfection with SpCas9 and DNMT 3×sgRNA vector targeting Dnmt3a, Dnmt1and Dnmt3b loci. Efficient genome editing of all three targeted genes isshown. FIG. 94A discloses SEQ ID NOS 896-898, respectively, in order ofappearance.

FIG. 95A-95C (Example 40) shows next generation sequencing of targetedDnmt3a, Dnmt1 and Dnmt3b loci. Examples of sequencing results of mutatedDnmt3a (a) (SEQ ID NOS 899-900, 2, 901-905, 903, and 906-908,respectively, in order of appearance), Dnmt1 (b) (SEQ ID NOS 909-910, 3,911-912, 911, 913-914, 913, 911, and 915-916, respectively, in order ofappearance) and Dnmt3b (c) (SEQ ID NOS 898, 917, 4, and 918-923,respectively, in order of appearance) loci after in vivo delivery ofSpCas9 and DNMT 3×sgRNA into the mouse dentate gyrus. Green: wild-typesequence, dashes: deleted bases, bases: insertion or mutations.Arrowheads indicate CRISPR-SpCas9 cutting site. The full sequences usedin this figure are provide as SEQ ID NO: 2, SEQ ID NO: 3, and SEQ ID NO:4 for the Dnmt3a, the Dnmt1 and the Dnmt3b loci, respectively. They are:

SEQ ID NO: 2 (Dnmt3a): CCT CCG TGT CAG CGA CCC ATG CCA A SEQ ID NO: 3(Dnmt1): CCA GCG TCG AAC AGC TCC AGC CCG SEQ ID NO: 4 (Dnmt3b) AGA GGGTGC CAG CGG GTA TAT GAG G

FIG. 96 shows SaCas9 protein sequences are codon optimized (“reopt”) andhave their ubiquitination signals removed (“reopt(Ub)”) for enhancedexpression. Protein blots against FLAG- and HA-tagged SaCas9 showapproximately 2-fold increased expression of optimized SaCas9 (reopt,#2-4) relative to the original constructs (#0, 5, and 6), and similarlevel as SpCas9 (SpCas9 330, top bar left panel; SpCas9 414, top barright panel). The addition of 3×HA tagging (right panel #6) improvesdetection signal over the 1×HA tag (right panel #5) by ˜2 fold.

FIG. 97 shows indel efficiency using sgRNAs transcribed by U6 promoteras-is (left hand bar for each number of nts) or appending a “G” (righthand bar for each number of nts and with a thicker border) to 5′-mostposition of sgRNA for SaCas9. Total sgRNA spacer lengths (including G)are indicated on the x-axis. Graph represents with aggregated data from5 sgRNAs.

FIG. 98 shows optimization of sgRNA spacer length (x axis). Graphs showindel formation with different lengths of sgRNA spacer in HEK (left) andHepa (right) cells.

The figures herein are for illustrative purposes only and are notnecessarily drawn to scale.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

With respect to general information on CRISPR-Cas Systems: Reference ismade to U.S. provisional patent applications 61/758,468; 61/802,174;61/806,375; 61/814,263; 61/819,803 and 61/828,130, filed on Jan. 30,2013; Mar. 15, 2013; Mar. 28, 2013; Apr. 20, 2013; May 6, 2013 and May28, 2013 respectively. Reference is also made to U.S. provisional patentapplication 61/836,123, filed on Jun. 17, 2013. Reference is also madeto U.S. provisional patent applications 61/736,527 and 61/748,427, filedon Dec. 12, 2012 and Jan. 2, 2013, respectively. Reference is also madeto U.S. provisional patent application 61/791,409, filed on Mar. 15,2013. Reference is also made to U.S. provisional patent application61/799,800, filed Mar. 15, 2013. Reference is also made to U.S.provisional patent applications 61/835,931, 61/835,936, 61/836,127,61/836,101, 61/836,080 and 61/835,973, each filed Jun. 17, 2013. Furtherreference is made to U.S. provisional patent applications 61/862,468 and61/862,355 filed on Aug. 5, 2013; 61/871,301 filed on Aug. 28, 2013;61/960,777 filed on Sep. 25, 2013 and 61/961,980 filed on Oct. 28, 2013.Further reference is made to U.S. provisional patent application61/915,325, filed on Dec. 12, 2013. Each of these applications, and alldocuments cited therein or during their prosecution (“appln citeddocuments”) and all documents cited or referenced in the appln citeddocuments, together with any instructions, descriptions, productspecifications, and product sheets for any products mentioned therein orin any document therein and incorporated by reference herein, are herebyincorporated herein by reference, and may be employed in the practice ofthe invention. All documents (e.g., these applications and the applncited documents) are incorporated herein by reference to the same extentas if each individual document was specifically and individuallyindicated to be incorporated by reference.

Also with respect to general information on CRISPR-Cas Systems, mentionis made of:

-   Multiplex genome engineering using CRISPR/Cas systems. Cong, L.,    Ran, F. A., Cox, D., Lin, S., Barretto, R., Habib, N., Hsu, P. D.,    Wu, X., Jiang, W., Marraffini, L. A., & Zhang, F. Science February    15; 339(6121):819-23 (2013);-   RNA-guided editing of bacterial genomes using CRISPR-Cas systems.    Jiang W., Bikard D., Cox D., Zhang F, Marraffini L A. Nat Biotechnol    March; 31(3):233-9 (2013);-   One-Step Generation of Mice Carrying Mutations in Multiple Genes by    CRISPR/Cas-Mediated Genome Engineering. Wang H., Yang H., Shivalila    C S., Dawlaty M M., Cheng A W., Zhang F., Jaenisch R. Cell May 9;    153(4):910-8 (2013);-   Optical control of mammalian endogenous transcription and epigenetic    states. Konermann S, Brigham M D, Trevino A E, Hsu P D, Heidenreich    M, Cong L, Platt R J, Scott D A, Church G M, Zhang F. Nature. 2013    Aug. 22; 500(7463):472-6. doi: 10.1038/Nature12466. Epub 2013 Aug.    23;-   Double Nicking by RNA-Guided CRISPR Cas9 for Enhanced Genome Editing    Specificity. Ran, F A., Hsu, P D., Lin, C Y., Gootenberg, J S.,    Konermann, S., Trevino, A E., Scott, D A., Inoue, A., Matoba, S.,    Zhang, Y., & Zhang, F. Cell August 28. pii: S0092-8674(13)01015-5.    (2013);-   DNA targeting specificity of RNA guided Cas9 nucleases. Hsu, P.,    Scott, D., Weinstein, J., Ran, F A., Konermann, S., Agarwala, V.,    Li, Y., Fine, E., Wu, X., Shalem, O., Cradick, T J., Marraffini, L    A., Bao, G., & Zhang, F. Nat Biotechnol doi:10.1038/nbt.2647 (2013);-   Genome engineering using the CRISPR-Cas9 system. Ran, F A., Hsu, P    D., Wright, J., Agarwala, V., Scott, D A., Zhang, F. Nature    Protocols November; 8(11):2281-308. (2013);-   Genome-Scale CRISPR-Cas9 Knockout Screening in Human Cells. Shalem,    O., Sanjana, N E., Hartenian, E., Shi, X., Scott, D A., Mikkelson,    T., Heckl, D., Ebert, B L., Root, D E., Doench, J G., Zhang, F.    Science December 12. (2013). [Epub ahead of print];-   Crystal structure of cas9 in complex with guide RNA and target DNA.    Nishimasu, H., Ran, F A., Hsu, P D., Konermann, S., Shehata, S I.,    Dohmae, N., Ishitani, R., Zhang, F., Nureki, O. Cell February 27.    (2014). 156(5):935-49;-   Genome-wide binding of the CRISPR endonuclease Cas9 in mammalian    cells. Wu X., Scott D A., Kriz A J., Chiu A C., Hsu P D., Dadon D    B., Cheng A W., Trevino A E., Konermann S., Chen S., Jaenisch R.,    Zhang F., Sharp P A. Nat Biotechnol. (2014) April 20. doi:    10.1038/nbt.2889, and-   Development and Applications of CRISPR-Cas9 for Genome Engineering,    Hsu et al, Cell 157, 1262-1278 (Jun. 5, 2014) (Hsu 2014),    each of which is incorporated herein by reference, and discussed    briefly below:

Cong et al. engineered type II CRISPR/Cas systems for use in eukaryoticcells based on both Streptococcus thermophilus Cas9 and alsoStreptoccocus pyogenes Cas9 and demonstrated that Cas9 nucleases can bedirected by short RNAs to induce precise cleavage of DNA in human andmouse cells. Their study further showed that Cas9 as converted into anicking enzyme can be used to facilitate homology-directed repair ineukaryotic cells with minimal mutagenic activity. Additionally, theirstudy demonstrated that multiple guide sequences can be encoded into asingle CRISPR array to enable simultaneous editing of several atendogenous genomic loci sites within the mammalian genome, demonstratingeasy programmability and wide applicability of the RNA-guided nucleasetechnology. This ability to use RNA to program sequence specific DNAcleavage in cells defined a new class of genome engineering tools. Thesestudies further showed that other CRISPR loci are likely to betransplantable into mammalian cells and can also mediate mammaliangenome cleavage. Importantly, it can be envisaged that several aspectsof the CRISPR/Cas system can be further improved to increase itsefficiency and versatility.

Jiang et al. used the clustered, regularly interspaced, shortpalindromic repeats (CRISPR)-associated Cas9 endonuclease complexed withdual-RNAs to introduce precise mutations in the genomes of Streptococcuspneumoniae and Escherichia coli. The approach relied ondual-RNA:Cas9-directed cleavage at the targeted genomic site to killunmutated cells and circumvents the need for selectable markers orcounter-selection systems. The study reported reprogrammingdual-RNA:Cas9 specificity by changing the sequence of short CRISPR RNA(crRNA) to make single- and multinucleotide changes carried on editingtemplates. The study showed that simultaneous use of two crRNAs enabledmultiplex mutagenesis. Furthermore, when the approach was used incombination with recombineering, in S. pneumoniae, nearly 100% of cellsthat were recovered using the described approach contained the desiredmutation, and in E. coli, 65% that were recovered contained themutation.

Konermann et al. addressed the need in the art for versatile and robusttechnologies that enable optical and chemical modulation of DNA-bindingdomains based CRISPR Cas9 enzyme and also Transcriptional Activator LikeEffectors

As discussed in the present specification, the Cas9 nuclease from themicrobial CRISPR-Cas system is targeted to specific genomic loci by a 20nt guide sequence, which can tolerate certain mismatches to the DNAtarget and thereby promote undesired off-target mutagenesis. To addressthis, Ran et al. described an approach that combined a Cas9 nickasemutant with paired guide RNAs to introduce targeted double-strandbreaks. Because individual nicks in the genome are repaired with highfidelity, simultaneous nicking via appropriately offset guide RNAs isrequired for double-stranded breaks and extends the number ofspecifically recognized bases for target cleavage. The authorsdemonstrated that using paired nicking can reduce off-target activity by50- to 1,500-fold in cell lines and to facilitate gene knockout in mousezygotes without sacrificing on-target cleavage efficiency. Thisversatile strategy enables a wide variety of genome editing applicationsthat require high specificity.

Hsu et al. characterized SpCas9 targeting specificity in human cells toinform the selection of target sites and avoid off-target effects. Thestudy evaluated >700 guide RNA variants and SpCas9-induced indelmutation levels at >100 predicted genomic off-target loci in 293T and293FT cells. The authors that SpCas9 tolerates mismatches between guideRNA and target DNA at different positions in a sequence-dependentmanner, sensitive to the number, position and distribution ofmismatches. The authors further showed that SpCas9-mediated cleavage isunaffected by DNA methylation and that the dosage of SpCas9 and sgRNAcan be titrated to minimize off-target modification. Additionally, tofacilitate mammalian genome engineering applications, the authorsreported providing a web-based software tool to guide the selection andvalidation of target sequences as well as off-target analyses.

Ran et al. described a set of tools for Cas9-mediated genome editing vianon-homologous end joining (NHEJ) or homology-directed repair (HDR) inmammalian cells, as well as generation of modified cell lines fordownstream functional studies. To minimize off-target cleavage, theauthors further described a double-nicking strategy using the Cas9nickase mutant with paired guide RNAs. The protocol provided by theauthors experimentally derived guidelines for the selection of targetsites, evaluation of cleavage efficiency and analysis of off-targetactivity. The studies showed that beginning with target design, genemodifications can be achieved within as little as 1-2 weeks, andmodified clonal cell lines can be derived within 2-3 weeks.

Shalem et al. described a new way to interrogate gene function on agenome-wide scale. Their studies showed that delivery of a genome-scaleCRISPR-Cas9 knockout (GeCKO) library targeted 18,080 genes with 64,751unique guide sequences enabled both negative and positive selectionscreening in human cells. First, the authors showed use of the GeCKOlibrary to identify genes essential for cell viability in cancer andpluripotent stem cells. Next, in a melanoma model, the authors screenedfor genes whose loss is involved in resistance to vemurafenib, atherapeutic that inhibits mutant protein kinase BRAF. Their studiesshowed that the highest-ranking candidates included previously validatedgenes NF1 and MED12 as well as novel hits NF2, CUL3, TADA2B, and TADA1.The authors observed a high level of consistency between independentguide RNAs targeting the same gene and a high rate of hit confirmation,and thus demonstrated the promise of genome-scale screening with Cas9.

Nishimasu et al. reported the crystal structure of Streptococcuspyogenes Cas9 in complex with sgRNA and its target DNA at 2.5 A°resolution. The structure revealed a bilobed architecture composed oftarget recognition and nuclease lobes, accommodating the sgRNA:DNAheteroduplex in a positively charged groove at their interface. Whereasthe recognition lobe is essential for binding sgRNA and DNA, thenuclease lobe contains the HNH and RuvC nuclease domains, which areproperly positioned for cleavage of the complementary andnon-complementary strands of the target DNA, respectively. The nucleaselobe also contains a carboxyl-terminal domain responsible for theinteraction with the protospacer adjacent motif (PAM). Thishigh-resolution structure and accompanying functional analyses haverevealed the molecular mechanism of RNA-guided DNA targeting by Cas9,thus paving the way for the rational design of new, versatilegenome-editing technologies.

Wu et al. mapped genome-wide binding sites of a catalytically inactiveCas9 (dCas9) from Streptococcus pyogenes loaded with single guide RNAs(sgRNAs) in mouse embryonic stem cells (mESCs). The authors showed thateach of the four sgRNAs tested targets dCas9 to between tens andthousands of genomic sites, frequently characterized by a 5-nucleotideseed region in the sgRNA and an NGG protospacer adjacent motif (PAM).Chromatin inaccessibility decreases dCas9 binding to other sites withmatching seed sequences; thus 70% of off-target sites are associatedwith genes. The authors showed that targeted sequencing of 295 dCas9binding sites in mESCs transfected with catalytically active Cas9identified only one site mutated above background levels. The authorsproposed a two-state model for Cas9 binding and cleavage, in which aseed match triggers binding but extensive pairing with target DNA isrequired for cleavage.

Hsu 2014 is a review article that discusses generally CRISPR-Cas9history from yogurt to genome editing, including genetic screening ofcells, that is in the information, data and findings of the applicationsin the lineage of this specification filed prior to Jun. 5, 2014. Thegeneral teachings of Hsu 2014 do not involve the specific models,animals of the instant specification.

The invention relates to the engineering and optimization of systems,methods and compositions used for the control of gene expressioninvolving sequence targeting, such as genome perturbation orgene-editing, that relate to the CRISPR-Cas system and componentsthereof. In advantageous embodiments, the Cas enzyme is Cas9.

The CRISPRS-Cas polynucleotide sequence is generally referred to hereinas the guide, or even as guide RNA (sgRNA), although it will beappreciated that this terminology was not as commonplace previously.Furthermore, reference is made herein to a CRISPR-Cas9 system, althoughit will be appreciated that the invention can be broadly practiced as toany CRISPR-Cas system. Advantageously the Cas has a nuclease functioneither to induce a DSB, a nick or a double nick. Cas9 is preferred andSaCas9 is particularly preferred.

Example 38 showed that both genotypic and, crucially, phenotypic changesare seen with CRISPR-Cas systems. Not only that, but the CRISPR-Cas9system was effective at inducing a phenotypic change in vivo.

Specifically, the target was ApoB, a lipid metabolism gene. What is soencouraging is that ApoB can be said to be the “gold-standard” in liverdelivery, and is widely used in mouse models of obesity.

Delivery was via intravenous injection. An AAV vector was used, as wellas a Liver-specific promoter (TBG) for Cas9.

Delivery through expression from a viral vector as seen here is animprovement over Anderson/Yin's (NBT 2884) use of hydrodynamic deliveryas the delivery method, because hydrodynamic delivery requires severalmls of fluid to be injected which is stressful on the murine body andcan be fatal. Hydrodynamic delivery is best suited for delivery ofplasmid (naked) DNA, whereas we have shown that packaging the guide andCas9 sequences within a viral delivery vector is preferable in terms ofgreatly increased efficiency. Indeed, only relatively small volumes needto be introduced, and this can be done intravenously (i.v.), which islikely to be much more acceptable therapeutically.

What was particularly encouraging was that not only was a genotypicchange seen in a “gold-standard” gene for liver such as ApoB, butphenotypic changes were also recorded. Previous work with PCSK9 hadshown genotypic, but not phenotypic changes, so the phenotypic changesseen with ApoB validate the plausibility of CRISPR delivery to, and itsability to effect phenotypic change in, the Liver. This is incombination with the more therapeutically acceptable means of delivery(i.v. compared to hydrodynamic delivery). As such, viral delivery ofCRISPR-Cas9 system (guide and Cas9) is preferred, especiallyintravenously).

Potential targets include: PCSK9, HMGCR, APOB, LDLR, ANGPTL3, F8,F9/FIX, AAT, FAH, HPD, TAT, ATP7B, UGT1A1, OTC, ARH.

Accordingly, provided are methods of inducing a phenotypic change invivo comprising administering the CRISPR-Cas9 system to the targetcells, for instance the liver. Suitable delivery routes are describedherein but i.v. injection is preferred in some embodiments. Viralvectors are preferred, particularly AAV, in particular AAV serotype 2/8.

Also provided is a CRISPR-Cas9 system comprising one or more guidestargeting lipid metabolism genes, for instance ApoB. Methods of treatingobesity, comprising administering said CRISPR-Cas9 system, are alsoenvisaged. A mouse model comprising one or more liver gene knockdown(s), especially of lipid metabolism gene(s), for instance includingApoB, are preferred.

Liver specific promoters for the Cas9 will be apparent but may includethose listed above. A preferred example is TBG.

As shown in Example 39, the guide may be 18-23 nucleotides in length. Itmay be 18-22, or 19-22, or 18-21, 20-22, but is preferably 22 and mostpreferably 21 nucleotides in length.

Also provided is proof of principle of successful packaging of a guidesequence into a SaCas9 intron. Accordingly, the CRISPR-Cas9 systems,wherein one or more guide sequences are packaged (positioned orinserted) into a Cas9 intron, are preferred.

The H1 promoter can be used and may be preferable in some circumstances.

Expanding on the work by Ran (Cell, 154, 21 Aug. 2013), the degree ofoverlap in the dual guide approach using a D10A Double-Nickase wasinvestigated. Optimal results were shown between −5 and +1 bp (5′ to5′). Accordingly, it is prefer to use a dual guide approach to minimiseoff target effects. These preferably overlap, or come close tooverlapping, at their 5′ ends, on different stands of DNA at the genomictarget. Preferably, the overlap is in the range of −5 to +1 bp. In theseinstances, it will be appreciated that the Cas9 is a double nickase,such as the preferred D10A variant.

Example 40 provides, inter alia: a first demonstration of successfulAAV-mediated Cas9 delivery in vivo as well as efficient genomemodification in post-mitotic neurons; for the development of a nucleartagging technique which enables easy isolation of neuronal nuclei fromCas9 and sgRNA-expressing cells; a demonstration of applications towardRNAseq analysis of neuronal transcriptome; how electrophysiologicalstudies and other techniques can be integrated with Cas9-mediated genomeperturbation to determine phenotypic changes; how electrophysiologicalstudies and other techniques can be integrated with Cas9-mediated genomeperturbation to determine phenotypic changes; how electrophysiologicalstudies and other techniques can be integrated with Cas9-mediated genomeperturbation to determine phenotypic changes; and a demonstration ofmultiplex targeting and the ability to study gene function on rodentbehavior using Cas9-mediated genome editing.

The present invention provides: understanding and testing of genefunction, including the creation and testing of models; including as togene therapy and hence gene therapy, gene therapy methods and uses forgene therapy are within the ambit of the skilled person from thisdiclsoure.

An additional aspect, discussed further below, is in relation to amethod for Nuclear Tagging.

It will be appreciated that reference to CRISPR-Cas9 systems herein is ashort-hand for referring to the Cas9 enzymes provided herein incombination with the guides or guides used to target one or more genomicsequences. (And that the invention can also be broadly considered as toCRISPR-Cas systems.) Reference to guide(s) includes sgRNA, as well asthe chimeric polynucleotide sequences described herein which comprisesthe guide sequences capabale of hybridising to target sequences in thegenome of the subject, a tracr mate sequence and a tracr sequence.

The data essentially shows phenotypic changes resulting from gene knockdown using two separate CRISPR-Cas9 systems according to the invention(guide RNA in combination with a Cas9 enzyme), in this case tosuccessfully perturb gene function. The chosen tissue was brain tissue,but the results provide proof of principle for a wide range ofpost-mitotic tissues. This is an important distinction, because previouswork has focussed on dividing cells (i.e. pre-mitotic).

In other words, whereas SpCas9 has been broadly used to engineerdividing cells, we demonstrate that SpCas9 can also be used to engineerthe genome of postmitotic neurons. This is done with high efficiency viaNHEJ-mediated indel generation to create knock downs, but therapeuticuses involving correction via the HDR mechanism (upon provision of arepair template) are also envisaged. Both are dependent on successfuldelivery and functional expression of the Cas9 and RNA guide or guides,which is shown here.

The fact that genotypic changes induced by the CRISPR-Cas9 systems thenresults in a phenotypic change is also important for both of the aboveareas (gene function and gene therapy).

The first CRISPR-Cas9 system employed guide sequences directed at(targeting) Mecp2. A dual vector CRISPR-Cas9 system, with one vectorcomprising the guide and one comprising the Cas9, was successfullyemployed showing further proof of principle for such dual vectorsystems. The dual vector CRISPR-Cas9 system was successfully delivered,via stereotactical injection, to two separate locations in the brain,specifically the Hippocampal dentate gyrus and the visual cortex. Inboth cases, gene perturbation of the same gene, Mecp2, was seenindicating that the dual vector system was successfully delivered andacted as expected, with transcription and functional activity in theCas9 enzyme (in this case an SpCas9), and successful recruitment of theCas9 to the genomic target sequence by the guide sequences.

AAV-mediated in vivo delivery of SpCas9 and sgRNA provides a rapid andpowerful technology for achieving precise genomic perturbations withinintact neural circuits. As such, the vector used was an AAV vector,adding further evidence for their use in general and in dual vectorCRISPR-Cas9 systems in particular, especially in post-mitotic cells andtissues, and in particular in the brain.

It will of course be appreciated that the choice of promoter isimportant in achieving expression from the CRISPR-Cas9 system, inparticular the Cas9 or both guide(s) and Cas9. Suitable examples forcell and cell lifecycle stage specificity can be determined from theliterature. Nevertheless, we provide some non-limiting examples: TBG, aliver-specific promoter and is used here to drive expression of SaCas9;the H1 promoter; a truncated H1 promoter; the U6 promoter. Also, asguides do not necessarily need a specific promoter, one or more guidescould similarly packaged into a/the Cas9 intron.

The second CRISPR-Cas9 system used included a multiplex approach. Onekey advantage of the SpCas9 system is its ability to facilitatemultiplex genome editing. This second system successfully targeted threeor more genes from the same family (in this case, Dmnt1, 3a and 3b) byincluding suitable guides and resulted in stable knockouts of multiplegenes. This has broad implications for probing the function of not onlyindividual genes, but also whole gene families, in the tissues of livinganimals. This is particularly important for tissues such as the brainwhere this has not been possible before, or could only be achievedthrough long years of classical genetics. Applicants have shown thatsingle or multiple gene perturbation (even complete knock down) canoccur in post-mitotic cells in a normal animal. However, this couldequally apply to a model organism (for instance one already carrying agene mutation or perturbation or comprising altered expression of somekind) or a transgenic organism, lending a quick alternative to existingmethods of producing model organisms and using model organisms tounderstand gene function. Further guides (and/or whole CRISPR-Cas9systems) could be employed to make later rounds of gene perturbationsand/or reinstatements (restoring gene function for instance bycorrection of the perturbed gene through provision, for instance, of arepair template, such as ssDNA suitable for HDR) within the sameorganism.

In fact, in general, SpCas9-mediated targeting of single or multiplegenes can recapitulate morphological, electrophysiological, andbehavioral phenotypes observed using classical, more time-consuminggenetic mouse models.

Alternatively to knocking down whole gene families or related genes, thedata here also provides proof of principle that simultaneous knock downor three or more unrelated genes is equally feasible. This is applicableacross all tissues, but is particularly strongly presented in respect ofpost-mitotic tissues, especially the brain.

Another useful aspect of the work is that it showed that a combined, orintegrated, approach could be taken to studying gene function, employingCRISPR to effect a genotypic change and then using classical tools suchas electrophysiology (particularly relevant to brain and CNS tissue),biochemical, sequencing, electrophysiological, and/or behavioralreadouts to establish what, if any, phenotypic changes result from thegenotypic change induced by the CRISPR-Cas9 system. For example in thebrain, this allows us to study the function of individual as wells asgroups of genes in neural processes and their roles in brain disordersin vivo.

The successful perturbation of genes in this work is equally applicableto correction or reinstatement of gene function, i.e. the use ofCRISPR-Cas9 systems in gene therapy. This is particularly in relation totargeting post-mitotic cells, especially the brain.

In general, the use of CRISPR-Cas9 systems show improvements overexisting techniques such as Zn fingers, which take a long time to designand produce and cannot multiplex and shRNA, which has too manyoff-target effects whereas CRISPR off-target effects can be minimised byusing double-nicakse approaches.

Targeting of Tissues

The new work supports the use of CRISPR-Cas9 systems to target genes inpost-mitotic cells through delivery of the CRISPR-Cas9 system to theappropriate location (i.e. to cells within the organs or tissues ofinterest). Preferred tissues are within the following organs:

Kidney;

Digestive System including the stomach, pancreas, duodenum, ileum and/orcolon;

Heart;

Lung;

Brain, in particular neurones, and/or CNS in general;

Eye, including retinal tissue;

Ear, including the inner ear;

Skin;

Muscle;

Bone; and/or

Liver in general, although this is excluded in some embodiments as it isalso the subject of a separate application.

It will be appreciated that many of the above may comprise pre-mitoticcells, but that this aspect of the invention is directed to post-mitoticcells or tissues within those organs.

In particular, we prefer that the organ is the kidney or the brain.Within the brain, the data specifically shows delivery to theHippocampal dentate gyrus and the visual cortex, which are preferredtissues, although other tissues including any one or more of thefollowing: primary motor cortex, primary auditoty cortex, primarysomatosensory cortex, cerebellum, main olfactory bulb, prefrontalcortex, endopiriform nucleus, amygdala, substantia nigra, striatum,pallidum, thalamus, hypothalamus, Parabranchial nucleus, superiorolivary complex, cochlear nuclei, mammillary nuclei, are also preferredin some embodiments. Liver tissue are also preferred in someembodiments.

Cells from the brain, and neurones in particular, are especiallypreferred.

The choice of promoter to drive expression of the CRISPR-Cas9 system,especially the Cas9 is important, as mentioned above. To be consideredwhen selecting a promoter are the cell cycle stage (early/late) and thecell type as promoters will be specific for one of more cell types andcell-cycle stages. Suitable promoters may include any one or more of thefollowing, in some embodiments: Suitable promoters may include any oneor more of the following, in some embodiments:

Cell Type Promoter Excitatory neurons CamkII Fast spiking interneuronsParvalbumin All interneurons vGAT Dopaminoceptive neurons DR1Dopaminoceptive neurons DR2 Astroglia GFAP Activated neurons Arc

The dual vector CRISPR-Cas9 system used in targeting the brain, inparticular the Hippocampal dentate gyrus, packaged SpCas9 and sgRNAexpression cassettes on two separate viral vectors. Cas9s, in particularSpCAs9s, are therefore preferably delivered by adenoviral vectors,especially AAV (i.e. as AAV-SpCas9). Guides are preferably delivered assgRNA expression cassettes by adenoviral vectors, especially AAV (i.e.as AAV-SpGuide). A preferred route for this tissue (the Hippocampaldentate gyrus) and for the brain in general is stereotactical injection.

Understanding and Testing of Gene Function, and the Creation and Use ofModels to so do

Conditions include Huntington's, but essentially include any conditionfound in post-mitotic cells and especially those that may benefit frombeing studied in vivo or lack a useful model.

As mentioned above, CRISPR-Cas9 systems can be used to interrogate thefunction of one or more genes in post-mitotic cells. This may beachieved through delivery and expression of the CRISPR-Cas9 system tothe post-mitotic cell, wherein the guide(s) of the CRISPR-Cas9 systemare designed to recruit the Cas9 to the genomic target or targets ofinterest. Equally, where the Cas9 is already comprised within thepost-mitotic cell, protein (transcribed) form, then delivery of theguides to the post-mitotic cell will suffice. Where the Cas9 is alreadycomprised within the post-mitotic cell, in polynucleotide(untranscribed), then delivery of the guides to the post-mitotic cell aswell as induction of transcription of the Cas9 polynucleotide will benecessary. Having the Cas9 under the control of an inducible orrepressible promoter, such as the tet (tetracycline) on-off system maybe advantageous here.

One aspect that is particularly promising is the integration of CRISPRtechniques with phenotypic assays to determine the phenotypic changes,if any, resulting from gene perturbations, especially knock downs. Forinstance, Example 40 shows what can be achieved with targeted genomicperturbations coupled with quantitative readouts to provide insightsinto the biological function of specific genomic elements. Inparticular, Cas9-mediated in vivo genome editing in the brain can alsobe coupled with electrophysiological recording to study the effect ofgenomic perturbation on specific cell types or circuit components. In abroader sense, use of the CRISPR-Cas9 systems (to provide Cas9-mediatedgenomic perturbations) can be combined with biochemical, sequencing,electrophysiological, and behavioral analysis to study the function ofthe targeted genomic element.

Thus in one aspect, there is provided: a method of interrogating thefunction of one or more genes in a post-mitotic cell, comprising:

inducing a deficient genotype or gene knock down proliferative asdescribed below; and determining changes in expression of the one ormore genes in the proliferative condition thereby interrogating thefunction of the one or more genes.

Optionally, the method may also include:

transplanting the second population of cells into the subject therebyinducing the condition associated with the deficient genotype or geneknock down. This may be prior to the determining step.

The following applies broadly to appropriate aspects of the invention.The cell may be in a subject, such as a human, animal or model organism,so that gene function is interrogated in vivo. However, it is alsoenvisaged that the cell may be ex vivo, for instance in a cell cultureor in a model organ or organoid. In some embodiments, the method mayinclude isolation a first population of cells from the subject,optionally culturing them and transducing them with one or moreCRISPR-Cas9 systems. Further optional culturing may follow.Transplantation of the transduced cells back into the subject may thenoccur.

The cell may be frorm any of the tissues or organs described herein. Thebrain is one preferred example, providing for said method ofinterrogating the function of one or more genes, wherein thepost-mitotic cell is a brain cell, for instance a neurone. Particularlyin vivo, this allows for the interrogation of gene function on animalbehaviour. The animal is preferably a mammal, for instance a rodent.Given the complexity of the nervous system, which consists of intricatenetworks of heterogeneous cell types, being able to efficiently edit thegenome of neurons in vivo enables direct testing of gene function inrelevant cell types embedded in native contexts. This is supported byour data where knockout mice showed impaired memory consolidation whentested under trained context conditions Our results demonstrate thatCRIPSR-Cas9-mediated knockout of DNMT family members in dentate gyrusneurons is sufficient to probe the function of genes in behavioral tasks

This shows the versatility of Cas9s in facilitating targeted geneknockout in the mammalian brain in vivo, for studying genes functionsand, in particular, for dissection of neuronal circuits. Introducingstable knockouts of multiple genes in the brain of living animals willhave potentially far-reaching applications, such as causal interrogationof multigenic mechanisms in physiological and neuropathologicalconditions.

The specifics of this work are that we chose the mouse Mecp2 promoter(235 bp, pMecp2)7 and a minimal polyadenylation signal (48 bp, spA)based on their ability to achieve sufficient levels of SpCas9 expressionin cultured primary mouse cortical neurons. Mecp2 gene, plays aprincipal role in Rett syndrome, a type of autism spectrum disorder. Totarget Mecp2, we first designed several sgRNAs targeting exon 3 of themouse Mecp2 gene and evaluated their efficacy using Neuro-2a cells. Themost efficient sgRNA was identified using the SURVEYOR nuclease assay.The delivery was via stereotactical injection of a mixture (1:1 ratio)of high titer AAV-SpCas9 and AAV-SpGuide. We also successfully testedthe possibility of multiplex genome editing in the brain we designed amultiplex sgRNA expression vector consisting of three sgRNAs in tandem,along with GFP-KASH for nuclei labelling.

Thus, also provided are methods of inducing conditions involving one ormore gene knockdowns in a post-mitotic cell. Examples of such conditionsare numerous, but may include Rett syndrome, as exemplified. Suitablepromoters will be apparent, and the Mecp2 promoter is ideal for Rettsyndrome. One way to select a promoter to drive expression of theCRISPR-Cas9 system, in particular the Cas9, is to select the promoterfor the gene of interest.

Thus in one aspect, there is provided: A method of inducing a conditionsinvolving one or more deficient genes (or genotyoes) or gene knockdownsin a post-mitotic cell, comprising:

transducing a first population of cells with a non-naturally occurringor engineered composition comprising a vector system comprising one ormore vectors comprising

a first regulatory element operably linked to a CRISPR-Cas systemchimeric RNA (chiRNA) polynucleotide sequence, wherein thepolynucleotide sequence comprises

one or more, preferably three or more, guide sequences capable ofhybridizing to three or more target sequences in genome of the subject,

a tracr mate sequence, and

a tracr sequence, and

a second regulatory element operably linked to an enzyme-coding sequenceencoding a CRISPR enzyme comprising at list one or more nuclearlocalization sequences (NLSs), wherein (a), (b) and (c) are arranged ina 5′ to 3′ orientation,

wherein components I and II are located on the same or different vectorsof the system, wherein when transcribed, the tracr mate sequencehybridizes to the tracr sequence and the guide sequence directsequence-specific binding of CRISPR complexes to the target sequence,wherein the CRISPR complex comprises the CRISPR enzyme complexed with(1) the guide sequence that is hybridized or hybridizable to the targetsequence, and (2) the tracr mate sequence that is hybridized orhybridizable to the tracr sequence,wherein the CRISPR enzyme alters the genome of the first population ofcells to obtain a second population of cells bearing the one or moredeficient genes or knocked down genes.

Optionally, the method may also include:

isolating a first population of cells from the subject.

Optionally, the method may also include:

transplanting the second population of cells into the subject therebyinducing the proliferative condition.

This essentially involves inducing a non-functional (which includepartially non-functional) genotype into the target cell, to therebyprovide a model for study (including future restoration of thefunctional genotype).

CRISPR-Cas9 systems can also be used to facilitate the study of genefunctions in cellular assays by enabling targeted knockout inpost-mitotic neurons.

Methods for delivering nucleotides to neuronal cells are well known andreviewed in The Journal of Neuroscience, by Karra and Dahm (5 May 2010,30(18): 6171-6177; doi: 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.0183-10.2010). Examplesinclude electrical transfection methods (such as electroporation,nucleofection, and single-cell electroporation); chemical transfectionmethods (such as Ca2+ phosphate co/precipitation and lipofection); viraldelivery (such as Adenoviral, Adeno-Associated Virus (AAV), Lentiviraland Herpes Simplex Virus); and physical transfection methods (such asmicroinjection and biolistics (DNA-coated gold particles). All of thesecan be used for delivery of the CRISPR-Cas9 system, but lipofection orviral methods are preferred, especially AAV or Lentiviral.

Models

Models are provided with single or multiple genes knocked down. Anexample would be a rodent model for Rett syndrome, a Mecp2 knock down.Others include Dmnt family knock downs, specifically Dmnt1, 3a and 3bknock downs. As such, models studying neurological conditions areprovided. All that needs to be done is to identify the target genes ofinterest, design suitable guide(s) and include these in a suitableCRISPR-Cas9 system and deliver it to the post-mitotic cell(s) whether invivo or ex vivo, as required. For instance, the models may have altereddendritic tree morphology and/or spine density are provided.

As mentioned above, models tissues are also provided, such as oraganoidsor “Liver on a chip” or non-liver equivalents thereof such as ear,kidney and brain tissues, for instance on a chip or supported in ascaffold. Animal models and model tissues are preferred. These may bealready transformed with Cas9 so that they comprise Cas9 in nucleotideor protein form, as mentioned above. These have the advantage that Cas9does not need to be delivered alongside the guide(s) and this in turnmay allow for a much greater degree of (guide) multiplexing to beaccommodated within the delivery vectors. Again, use of inducible orrepressible systems such as tet-on or tet-off, may be advantageous here.

Models obtainable using the CRISPR-Cas9 system are herein described andwithin the ambit of the skilled person from this disclosure and theknowledge in the art. Due to the versatility of the CRISPR-Cas9 system,the range of possible models, whether human, rodent, mammalian orotherwise is hugely diverse and this can be established by simpleselection of appropriates guide(s). Methods of creating such models arealso provided.

Gene Therapy

The data in Example 40 focuses on gene perturbation, primarily knockdown. Gene knock down is likely to be only a small, if important, partof the total quorum of possible applications of CRISPR-Cas9 systems togene therapy. As already shown in the Yin and Anderson paper (NatureBiotech 2884 published online 30 Mar. 2014), a functional phenotype canbe restored following correction of a deficient mutation in hereditarytyrosinemia type I (HTI), an otherwise fatal condition caused bymutation of fumarylacetoacetate hydrolase (FAH) (G to A in the lastnucleotide in exon 8) which causes skipping of exon 8 during splicingand results in the formation of a truncated, unstable FAH protein,leading to accumulation of toxic metabolites. Correction of the Amutation back to the wild-type G geneotype resulted in a restoredphenotype.

As such, the approaches taken in the present work can plausibly beapplied to gene therapy. In particular, the dual vector approach, thenuclear tagging approach, the specifics of the brain delivery (the formof injection, the promoters and/or viral vectors used), as well as themultiplexing (use of multiple guides for multiple targets either withinthe same or within different genes) could equally be applied tocorrectional gene therapy (i.e. where a deficient genotype is corrected)as to the exemplified gene knock down. The main difference betweencorrectional gene therapy and gene knock down is that in order tocorrect a deficient genotype, such as a point mutation (for instance inCystic Fibrosis, see ref Schwank et al, Cell Stem Cell 13, 653-658 5Dec. 2013), it is advantageous to provide a repair template to stimulatethe HDR mechanism and ideally provide a suitable Cas9 nickase as well.

Accordingly, the present vectors preferably target post-mitotic cells.Where the guide or guides target a deficient genotype, are preferablyalso provided with a repair template, for instance ssDNA correspondingto the corrected sequence (a genotype providing functional phenotype).Repair templates are described herein. The Cas9 may be provided in thesame or a different vector from the guide or guides. The vectors arepreferably viral vectors, more preferably adenoviral vectors and mostpreferably AAV vectors. Delivery to the cells is preferably byintravenous injection or by stereotactic injection, as appropriate. Theselection of the promoter can also be important and preferred examplesare provided herein.

Methods of treating genetic diseases or conditions caused by, orassociated with, a deficient genotype in post-mitotic cells areprovided, comprising delivery of the CRISPR-Cas9 system to theappropriate cell. A deficient genotype may be the non-wild typegenotype. In particular, single point mutations and/or monogenicdisorders are especially suited to treatment using CRISPR-Cas9 systems.Where multiple genes require editing or correcting, then a multiplexapproach may be used to target them all simultaneously. Alternatively,two or more rounds of different CRISPR-Cas9 systems could be envisaged.Preferably, the wild-type genotype is corrected for. It does notnecessarily have to be the most common genotype, provided that functionis restored or improved in the phenotype.

An example of a restored phenotype is the restoration of hearing torestore VGLUT3 function and hence hearing in the inner ear of mice (OmarAkil, Rebecca P. Seal, Kevin Burke, Chuansong Wang, Aurash Alemi,Matthew During, Robert H. Edwards, Lawrence R. Lustig. Restoration ofHearing in the VGLUT3 Knockout Mouse Using Virally Mediated GeneTherapy.Neuron, 2012; 75 (2): 283 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuron.2012.05.019).This was using AAV-mediated delivery of VGLUT3 itself, but it isentirely plausible that CRISPR-Cas9 system could also be used,preferably also using AAV vectors, to target the cells of the inner earand correct the non-functional VGLUT3 genotype, with similar phenotypicconsequences, namely restoration of hearing. As such, delivery of theCRISPR-Cas9 system to the inner ear, preferably using AAV vectors, ispreferred, thus treating hearing loss. Indeed, restoration of genefunction in sensory organs such as the eye, including the retina, noseand ear (particularly the inner ear) is preferred.

A relatively recent overview, which includes a discussion of disordersin post-mitotic tissues (eye, ear and beyond) is Kaufmann et al (EMBOMol Med (2013(, 5, p1642-1661). This confirms the usefulness of AAV inthe correction of monogenic disorders in post-mitotic tissues. It statesthat “in combination with other characteristics such as low inflammatoryactivity, they have shown to have an excellent safety profile and aretherefore highly attractive tools for in vivo gene therapy. Indeed,Glybera® is a recombinant AAV for direct intramuscular injection . . . ”The paper, with citations, reviews gene therapy in the retina, centralnervous system, liver, skeletal and cardiac muscle as target tissues.And, with citations, indicates that “initial studies exploited theprototype AAV serotype 2 vector, the portfolio of AAV vectors hasrecently been expanded to include additional serotypes and evenengineered capsids.” Kaufmann and the documents cited in Kaufmann arehereby incorporated herein by reference.

RNAseq Analysis of the Transcriptome

The combination of SpCas9-mediated genome perturbation and populationlevel RNAseq analysis provides a way to characterize transcriptionalregulation and suggest genes that may be important to specific functionsor disease processes in the cells under consideration. In particular,the cells are from the brain, in particular neurones. Fast-actingtechniques such as a CRISPR-Cas9 system are advantageous in studying thetranscriptome, which is, by its nature, transient. As such, the use ofCRISPR-Cas9 systems according to the present invention in analysis ofthe transcriptome (RNAseq) are provided.

Nuclear Tagging Method

To facilitate immunofluorescence identification of SpCas9-expressingneurons, we tagged SpCas9 with a HA-epitope tag (derived from humaninfluenza hemagluttinin, a general epitope tag widely used in expressionvectors).

For the AAV-SpGuide vector, we packaged an U6-sgRNA expression cassetteas well as the green fluorescent protein (GFP)-fused with the KASHnuclear trans-membrane domain driven by the human Synapsin I promoter.The GFP-KASH fusion protein directs GFP to the outer nuclear membraneand enables fluorescence-based identification and purification of intactneuronal nuclei transduced by AAV-SpGuide.

Accordingly, the vectors of the present invention are preferably adaptedin a similar fashion. Thus, the vectors are provided wherein the Cas9 istagged with an epitope tag, such as the HA-epitope tag. The Cas9 may beany of the Cas9s described herein, for instance Sp or SaCas9 and may beany variant (such as D10A double nickase etc), provide that it is or canbe tagged appropriately.

The vectors of the present invention may also be adapted so that theguide RNA is packaged within an expression cassette, which comprises:

a reporter protein; and

optionally, a suitable promoter for the guide RNA, such as U6;

wherein the reporter protein is fused with a nuclear trans-membranedomain operably linked to a suitable promoter therefor.

The reporter protein is preferably a fluorescent protein, for instanceone of green, red or yellow fluorescent proteins (GFP, RFP, YFP) and soforth.

Examples of nuclear trans-membrane domains include KASH-like domains,Sun2 domains, LEM domains. In some preferred embodiments, the nucleartrans-membrane domain is the KASH nuclear trans-membrane. Preferably,the promoter for the trans-membrane domain is the human Synapsin Ipromoter; see also documents cited herein.

This tagging approach may be used within single or dual vector systems,but preferably within dual vector systems as space is limited in singlevector systems and the need for separate tags lessened as well.

Furthermore, each aspect of this tagging technique can be usedindependently of the other, so that epitope tagging of the Cas9 can beused alone, or the reporter/fluorescent protein cassette approach can beused alone, or more preferably both can be used together.

Multiple or repeat epitope Tags are preferred for the Cas9. Inparticular, a triple epitope tag was shown in Example 41 to improvedetection. The tag is preferably a repeat, more preferably a triplerepeat. HA is a preferred Cas9 epitope tag. A triple HA epitope tag is,therefore, preferred in some embodiments.

Kanasty and Anderson (Nature Materials, Vol 12 Nov. 2013) is a usefulreview, initially submitted on 11 Mar. 2013 and published online on 23Oct. 2013 of delivery of RNAi. Due to the similarities between RNAi andCRISPR guide sequences, the teaching of this and other art in respect ofRNAi is informative for the mechanisms of delivering the guides in ourCRISPR-Cas9 system. Some of the techniques described are also besuitable for delivery of the Cas9 as well. In some instance is may beuseful to deliver the guides of our CRISPR-Cas9 system separately fromthe Cas9. This may be as part of a dual-vector delivery system, wherethe vectors are considered in the broadest light as simply any means ofdelivery, rather than specifically viral vectors. It is envisaged thatthe Cas9 may be delivered via a viral vector and that guides specific togenomic targets are delivered separately. As discussed herein, theguides could be delivered via the same vector types as the Cas9, forexample a dual-vector system where the Cas9 is delivered in an AAVvector and the guide(s) are delivered in a separate AAV vector. This canbe done substantially contemporaneously (i.e. co-delivery), but it couldalso be done at separate points in time, separated even by weeks ormonths. For example, if a first round of CRISPR-Cas9 systems have beendelivered, but then it is subsequently required to provide furtherguides, then the original Cas9 which is hopefully still functional inthe target cells may be re-used. If the Cas9 is under the control of aninducible promoter, then induction of transcription of new CAs9 in thetarget cells is preferred. Equally, if a CAs9-expressing model providedfor herein is used, then only delivery of guide(s) is necessary.Accordingly, where delivery of guide(s) is required separately fromCas9, then it may be delivered in much the same way as RNAi. As such,the review by Kanasty is helpful in pointing out a number of knownapproaches that are suitable, with particular focus on the liver,although the means of delivery are generally appropriate for a broadrange of cells. Examples include:

-   -   “Liposomal delivery system, as well as siRNA conjugated to        lipophilic molecules, interact with serum lipoproteins and        subsequently gain entry into hepatocytes that take up those        lipoproteins;”    -   PEGylation;    -   Conjugates such as:        -   a. Dynamic Polyconjugates (DPCs, 10 nm nanoparticles), which            have been shown to deliver RNAi to successfully supress ApoB            (thereby crossing over with our work on targeting ApoB via a            CRISPR-Cas9 system); and        -   b. Triantennary GalNAc conjugates        -   c. are “both highly effective” especially GalNAc;    -   Other nanoparticles include:        -   d. Cyclodextrin Polymer nanoparticles (CDP), including            additional formulation components such as adamantine-PEG            (AD-PEG) and adamantine-PEG-transferrin (AD-PEG-Tf);        -   e. Lipid Nanoparticles (LNP), including cationic or            ionisable lipids, shielding lipids, cholesterol and            endogenous or exogenous targeting ligands. An example of an            endogenous targeting ligand is Retinol Binding protein (RBP)            useful for targeting hepatic and pancreatic stellate cells,            which express the RBP receptor. An example of an exogenous            targeting ligand is GalNac, which also targets the liver via            the asialoglycoprotein receptor on hepatocytes. A combined            approach is seen in Anlylams ALN-VSP;    -   “Fenestrations in the liver endothelium allow molecules 100-200        nm in diameter to diffuse out of the bloodstream and gain access        to the hepatocytes and other liver cells”;    -   Ligands such as GalNAc are suitable for delivery to        non-parenchymal liver cells expressing the mannose receptor, and        to hepatocytes where conjugation of suitable siRNA to a GalNAc        ligand has been shown to successfully supress PCSK9; and        Oligonucleotide nanoparticles (ONPs) composed of composed of        complimentary DNA fragments designed to hybridise into a        pre-defined 3D structure. Using suitable 3′ overhand sequences,        6 siRNA strands could be attached to each particle, even at a        specified position. The hydrodynamic diameter was about 29 nm.

These approaches are preferred in some embodiments for delivery of atleast the guides for a CRISPR-Cas9 system. Especially preferred areDynamic Polyconjugates or the use of an endogenous targeting ligandssuch as Retinol Binding protein or exogenous targeting ligands such asGalNac.

An advantage of the present methods is that the CRISPR system avoidsoff-target binding and its resulting side effects. This is achievedusing systems arranged to have a high degree of sequence specificity forthe target DNA.

Cas9

Cas9 optimization may be used to enhance function or to develop newfunctions, one can generate chimeric Cas9 proteins. Examples that theApplicants have generated are provided in Example 6. Chimeric Cas9proteins can be made by combining fragments from different Cas9homologs. For example, two example chimeric Cas9 proteins from the Cas9sdescribed herein. For example, Applicants fused the N-term of St1Cas9(fragment from this protein is in bold) with C-term of SpCas9. Thebenefit of making chimeric Cas9s include any or all of: reducedtoxicity; improved expression in eukaryotic cells; enhanced specificity;reduced molecular weight of protein, for example, making the proteinsmaller by combining the smallest domains from different Cas9 homologs;and/or altering the PAM sequence requirement.

The Cas9 may be used as a generic DNA binding protein. For example, andas shown in Example 7, Applicants used Cas9 as a generic DNA bindingprotein by mutating the two catalytic domains (D10 and H840) responsiblefor cleaving both strands of the DNA target. In order to upregulate genetranscription at a target locus Applicants fused a transcriptionalactivation domain (VP64) to Cas9. Other transcriptional activationdomains are known. As shown in Example 17, transcriptional activation ispossible. As also shown in Example 17, gene repression (in this case ofthe beta-catenin gene) is possible using a Cas9 repressor (DNA-bindingdomain) that binds to the target gene sequence, thus repressing itsactivity.

Cas9 and one or more guide RNA can be delivered using adeno associatedvirus (AAV), lentivirus, adenovirus or other plasmid or viral vectortypes, in particular, using formulations and doses from, for example,U.S. Pat. No. 8,454,972 (formulations, doses for adenovirus), U.S. Pat.No. 8,404,658 (formulations, doses for AAV) and U.S. Pat. No. 5,846,946(formulations, doses for DNA plasmids) and from clinical trials andpublications regarding the clinical trials involving lentivirus, AAV andadenovirus. For examples, for AAV, the route of administration,formulation and dose can be as in U.S. Pat. No. 8,454,972 and as inclinical trials involving AAV. For Adenovirus, the route ofadministration, formulation and dose can be as in U.S. Pat. No.8,404,658 and as in clinical trials involving adenovirus. For plasmiddelivery, the route of administration, formulation and dose can be as inU.S. Pat. No. 5,846,946 and as in clinical studies involving plasmids.Doses may be based on or extrapolated to an average 70 kg individual,and can be adjusted for patients, subjects, mammals of different weightand species. Frequency of administration is within the ambit of themedical or veterinary practitioner (e.g., physician, veterinarian),depending on usual factors including the age, sex, general health, otherconditions of the patient or subject and the particular condition orsymptoms being addressed.

The viral vectors can be injected into the tissue of interest. Forcell-type specific genome modification, the expression of Cas9 can bedriven by a cell-type specific promoter. For example, liver-specificexpression might use the Albumin promoter and neuron-specific expressionmight use the Synapsin I promoter.

Transgenic Animals and Plants

Transgenic animals (models) are also provided and the following appliesequally to ex vivo model tissues and collections of tissues, such asorganoids, liver on a chip and so forth. Preferred examples includeanimals comprising Cas9, in terms of polynucleotides encoding Cas9 orthe protein itself. Mice, rats and rabbits are preferred. To generatetransgenic mice with the constructs, as exemplified herein one mayinject pure, linear DNA into the pronucleus of a zygote from a pseudopregnant female, e.g. a CB56 female. Founders may then be identified,genotyped, and backcrossed to CB57 mice. The constructs may then becloned and optionally verified, for instance by Sanger sequencing. Knockouts are envisaged where for instance one or more genes are knocked outin a model. However, are knockins are also envisaged (alone or incombination). An example knockin Cas9 mouse was generated and this isexemplified, but Cas9 knockins are preferred. To generate a Cas9 knockin mice one may target the same constitutive and conditional constructsto the Rosa26 locus, as described herein (FIGS. 25A-B and 26). Methodsof US Patent Publication Nos. 20120017290 and 20110265198 assigned toSangamo BioSciences, Inc. directed to targeting the Rosa locus may bemodified to utilize the CRISPR Cas system of the present invention. Inanother embodiment, the methods of US Patent Publication No. 20130236946assigned to Cellectis directed to targeting the Rosa locus may also bemodified to utilize the CRISPR Cas system of the present invention.

Utility of the conditional Cas9 mouse: Applicants have shown in 293cells that the Cas9 conditional expression construct can be activated byco-expression with Cre. Applicants also show that the correctly targetedR1 mESCs can have active Cas9 when Cre is expressed. Because Cas9 isfollowed by the P2A peptide cleavage sequence and then EGFP Applicantsidentify successful expression by observing EGFP. Applicants have shownCas9 activation in mESCs. This same concept is what makes theconditional Cas9 mouse so useful. Applicants may cross their conditionalCas9 mouse with a mouse that ubiquitously expresses Cre (ACTB-Cre line)and may arrive at a mouse that expresses Cas9 in every cell. It shouldonly take the delivery of chimeric RNA to induce genome editing inembryonic or adult mice. Interestingly, if the conditional Cas9 mouse iscrossed with a mouse expressing Cre under a tissue specific promoter,there should only be Cas9 in the tissues that also express Cre. Thisapproach may be used to edit the genome in only precise tissues bydelivering chimeric RNA to the same tissue.

As mentioned above, transgenic animals are also provided. In thisregard, transgenic animals, especially mammals such as livestock (cows,sheep, goats and pigs), but also poultry and edible insects, arepreferred.

Adeno associated virus (AAV)

In terms of in vivo delivery, AAV is advantageous over other viralvectors for a couple of reasons:

Low toxicity (this may be due to the purification method not requiringultra centrifugation of cell particles that can activate the immuneresponse)

Low probability of causing insertional mutagenesis because it doesn'tintegrate into the host genome.

AAV has a packaging limit of 4.5 or 4.75 Kb. This means that Cas9 aswell as a promoter and transcription terminator have to be all fit intothe same viral vector. Constructs larger than 4.5 or 4.75 Kb will leadto significantly reduced virus production. SpCas9 is quite large, thegene itself is over 4.1 Kb, which makes it difficult for packing intoAAV. Therefore embodiments of the invention include utilizing homologsof Cas9 that are shorter. For example:

Cas9 Species Size Corynebacter diphtheriae 3252 Eubacterium ventriosum3321 Streptococcus pasteurianus 3390 Lactobacillus farciminis 3378Sphaerochaeta globus 3537 Azospirillum B510 3504 Gluconacetobacterdiazotrophicus 3150 Neisseria cinerea 3246 Roseburia intestinalis 3420Parvibaculum lavamentivorans 3111 Staphylococcus aureus 3159Nitratifractor salsuginis DSM 16511 3396 Campylobacter lari CF89-12 3009Streptococcus thermophilus LMD-9 3396

These species are therefore, in general, preferred Cas9 species.Applicants have shown delivery and in vivo mouse brain Cas9 expressiondata.

Two ways to package Cas9 coding nucleic acid molecules, e.g., DNA, intoviral vectors to mediate genome modification in vivo are preferred:

To achieve NHEJ-mediated gene knockout:

Single virus vector:

Vector containing two or more expression cassettes:

Promoter-Cas9 coding nucleic acid molecule-terminator

Prom oter-gRNA1-terminator

Promoter-gRNA2-terminator

Promoter-gRNA(N)-terminator (up to size limit of vector)

Double virus vector:

Vector 1 containing one expression cassette for driving the expressionof Cas9

Promoter-Cas9 coding nucleic acid molecule-terminator

Vector 2 containing one more expression cassettes for driving theexpression of one or more guideRNAs

Promoter-gRNA1-terminator

Promoter-gRNA(N)-terminator (up to size limit of vector)

To mediate homology-directed repair. In addition to the single anddouble virus vector approaches described above, an additional vector isused to deliver a homology-direct repair template.

Promoter used to drive Cas9 coding nucleic acid molecule expression caninclude:

AAV ITR can serve as a promoter: this is advantageous for eliminatingthe need for an additional promoter element (which can take up space inthe vector). The additional space freed up can be used to drive theexpression of additional elements (gRNA, etc.). Also, ITR activity isrelatively weaker, so can be used to reduce toxicity due to overexpression of Cas9.

For ubiquitous expression, can use promoters: CMV, CAG, CBh, PGK, SV40,Ferritin heavy or light chains, etc.

For brain expression, can use promoters: Synapsinl for all neurons,CaMKIIalpha for excitatory neurons, GAD67 or GAD65 or VGAT for GABAergicneurons, etc.

For liver expression, can use Albumin promoter.

For lung expression, can use SP-B.

For endothelial cells, can use ICAM.

For hematopoietic cells can use IFNbeta or CD45.

For Osteoblasts can use OG-2.

Promoter used to drive guide RNA can include:

Pol III promoters such as U6 or H1

Use of Pol II promoter and intronic cassettes to express gRNA

As to AAV, the AAV can be AAV1, AAV2, AAV5 or any combination thereof.One can select the AAV of the AAV with regard to the cells to betargeted; e.g., one can select AAV serotypes 1, 2, 5 or a hybrid capsidAAV1, AAV2, AAV5 or any combination thereof for targeting brain orneuronal cells; and one can select AAV4 for targeting cardiac tissue.AAV8 is useful for delivery to the liver. The above promoters andvectors are preferred individually.

RNA delivery is also a useful method of in vivo delivery. FIG. 27 showsdelivery and in vivo mouse brain Cas9 expression data. It is possible todeliver Cas9 and gRNA (and, for instance, HR repair template) into cellsusing liposomes or nanoparticles. Thus delivery of the CRISPR enzyme,such as a Cas9 and/or delivery of the RNAs of the invention may be inRNA form and via microvesicles, liposomes or nanoparticles. For example,Cas9 mRNA and gRNA can be packaged into liposomal particles for deliveryin vivo. Liposomal transfection reagents such as lipofectamine from LifeTechnologies and other reagents on the market can effectively deliverRNA molecules into the liver.

Enhancing NHEJ or HR efficiency is also helpful for delivery. It ispreferred that NHEJ efficiency is enhanced by co-expressingend-processing enzymes such as Trex2 (Dumitrache et al. Genetics. 2011August; 188(4): 787-797). It is preferred that HR efficiency isincreased by transiently inhibiting NHEJ machineries such as Ku70 andKu86. HR efficiency can also be increased by co-expressing prokaryoticor eukaryotic homologous recombination enzymes such as RecBCD, RecA.

Various means of delivery are described herein, and further discussed inthis section.

Viral delivery: The CRISPR enzyme, for instance a Cas9, and/or any ofthe present RNAs, for instance a guide RNA, can be delivered using adenoassociated virus (AAV), lentivirus, adenovirus or other viral vectortypes, or combinations thereof. Cas9 and one or more guide RNAs can bepackaged into one or more viral vectors. In some embodiments, the viralvector is delivered to the tissue of interest by, for example, anintramuscular injection, while other times the viral delivery is viaintravenous, transdermal, intranasal, oral, mucosal, or other deliverymethods. Such delivery may be either via a single dose, or multipledoses. One skilled in the art understands that the actual dosage to bedelivered herein may vary greatly depending upon a variety of factors,such as the vector chose, the target cell, organism, or tissue, thegeneral condition of the subject to be treated, the degree oftransformation/modification sought, the administration route, theadministration mode, the type of transformation/modification sought,etc.

Such a dosage may further contain, for example, a carrier (water,saline, ethanol, glycerol, lactose, sucrose, calcium phosphate, gelatin,dextran, agar, pectin, peanut oil, sesame oil, etc.), a diluent, apharmaceutically-acceptable carrier (e.g., phosphate-buffered saline), apharmaceutically-acceptable excipient, and/or other compounds known inthe art. Such a dosage formulation is readily ascertainable by oneskilled in the art. The dosage may further contain one or morepharmaceutically acceptable salts such as, for example, a mineral acidsalt such as a hydrochloride, a hydrobromide, a phosphate, a sulfate,etc.; and the salts of organic acids such as acetates, propionates,malonates, benzoates, etc. Additionally, auxiliary substances, such aswetting or emulsifying agents, pH buffering substances, gels or gellingmaterials, flavorings, colorants, microspheres, polymers, suspensionagents, etc. may also be present herein. In addition, one or more otherconventional pharmaceutical ingredients, such as preservatives,humectants, suspending agents, surfactants, antioxidants, anticakingagents, fillers, chelating agents, coating agents, chemical stabilizers,etc. may also be present, especially if the dosage form is areconstitutable form. Suitable exemplary ingredients includemicrocrystalline cellulose, carboxymethylcellulose sodium, polysorbate80, phenylethyl alcohol, chlorobutanol, potassium sorbate, sorbic acid,sulfur dioxide, propyl gallate, the parabens, ethyl vanillin, glycerin,phenol, parachlorophenol, gelatin, albumin and a combination thereof. Athorough discussion of pharmaceutically acceptable excipients isavailable in REMINGTON'S PHARMACEUTICAL SCIENCES (Mack Pub. Co., N.J.1991) which is incorporated by reference herein.

In an embodiment herein the delivery is via an adenovirus, which may beat a single booster dose containing at least 1×10⁵ particles (alsoreferred to as particle units, pu) of adenoviral vector. In anembodiment herein, the dose preferably is at least about 1×10⁶ particles(for example, about 1×10⁶-1×10¹² particles), more preferably at leastabout 1×10⁷ particles, more preferably at least about 1×10⁸ particles(e.g., about 1×10⁸-1×10¹¹ particles or about 1×10⁸-1×10¹² particles),and most preferably at least about 1×10⁰ particles (e.g., about1×10⁹-1×10¹⁰ particles or about 1×10⁹-1×10¹² particles), or even atleast about 1×10¹⁰ particles (e.g., about 1×10¹⁰-1×10¹² particles) ofthe adenoviral vector. Alternatively, the dose comprises no more thanabout 1×10¹⁴ particles, preferably no more than about 1×10¹³ particles,even more preferably no more than about 1×10¹² particles, even morepreferably no more than about 1×10¹¹ particles, and most preferably nomore than about 1×10¹⁰ particles (e.g., no more than about 1×10⁹articles). Thus, the dose may contain a single dose of adenoviral vectorwith, for example, about 1×10⁶ particle units (pu), about 2×10⁶ pu,about 4×10⁶ pu, about 1×10⁷ pu, about 2×10⁷ pu, about 4×10⁷ pu, about1×10⁸ pu, about 2×10⁸ pu, about 4×10⁸ pu, about 1×10⁹ pu, about 2×10⁹pu, about 4×10⁹ pu, about 1×10¹⁰ pu, about 2×10¹⁰ pu, about 4×10¹⁰ pu,about 1×10¹¹ pu, about 2×10¹¹ pu, about 4×10¹¹ pu, about 1×10¹² pu,about 2×10¹² pu, or about 4×10¹² pu of adenoviral vector. See, forexample, the adenoviral vectors in U.S. Pat. No. 8,454,972 B2 to Nabel,et. al., granted on Jun. 4, 2013; incorporated by reference herein, andthe dosages at col 29, lines 36-58 thereof. In an embodiment herein, theadenovirus is delivered via multiple doses.

In an embodiment herein, the delivery is via an AAV. A therapeuticallyeffective dosage for in vivo delivery of the AAV to a human is believedto be in the range of from about 20 to about 50 ml of saline solutioncontaining from about 1×10¹⁰ to about 1×10¹⁰ functional AAV/ml solution.The dosage may be adjusted to balance the therapeutic benefit againstany side effects. In an embodiment herein, the AAV dose is generally inthe range of concentrations of from about 1×10⁵ to 1×10⁵⁰ genomes AAV,from about 1×10⁸ to 1×10²⁰ genomes AAV, from about 1×10¹⁰ to about1×10¹⁶ genomes, or about 1×10¹¹ to about 1×10¹⁶ genomes AAV. A humandosage may be about 1×10¹³ genomes AAV. Such concentrations may bedelivered in from about 0.001 ml to about 100 ml, about 0.05 to about 50ml, or about 10 to about 25 ml of a carrier solution. Other effectivedosages can be readily established by one of ordinary skill in the artthrough routine trials establishing dose response curves. See, forexample, U.S. Pat. No. 8,404,658 B2 to Hajjar, et al., granted on Mar.26, 2013, at col. 27, lines 45-60.

In an embodiment herein the delivery is via a plasmid. In such plasmidcompositions, the dosage should be a sufficient amount of plasmid toelicit a response. For instance, suitable quantities of plasmid DNA inplasmid compositions can be from about 0.1 to about 2 mg, or from about1 μg to about 10 μg.

The doses herein are based on an average 70 kg individual. The frequencyof administration is within the ambit of the medical or veterinarypractitioner (e.g., physician, veterinarian), or scientist skilled inthe art. Mice used in experiments are about 20 g. From that which isadministered to a 20 g mouse, one can extrapolate to a 70 kg individual.

Lentivirus

Lentiviruses are complex retroviruses that have the ability to infectand express their genes in both mitotic and post-mitotic cells. The mostcommonly known lentivirus is the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV),which uses the envelope glycoproteins of other viruses to target a broadrange of cell types.

Lentiviruses may be prepared as follows. After cloning pCasES10 (whichcontains a lentiviral transfer plasmid backbone), HEK293FT at lowpassage (p=5) were seeded in a T-75 flask to 50% confluence the daybefore transfection in DMEM with 10% fetal bovine serum and withoutantibiotics. After 20 hours, media was changed to OptiMEM (serum-free)media and transfection was done 4 hours later. Cells were transfectedwith 10 μg of lentiviral transfer plasmid (pCasES10) and the followingpackaging plasmids: 5 μg of pMD2.G (VSV-g pseudotype), and 7.5 ug ofpsPAX2 (gag/pol/rev/tat). Transfection was done in 4 mL OptiMEM with acationic lipid delivery agent (50 uL Lipofectamine 2000 and 100 ul Plusreagent). After 6 hours, the media was changed to antibiotic-free DMEMwith 10% fetal bovine serum.

Lentivirus may be purified as follows. Viral supernatants were harvestedafter 48 hours. Supernatants were first cleared of debris and filteredthrough a 0.45 um low protein binding (PVDF) filter. They were then spunin a ultracentrifuge for 2 hours at 24,000 rpm. Viral pellets wereresuspended in 50 ul of DMEM overnight at 4 C. They were then aliquottedand immediately frozen at −80 C.

In another embodiment, minimal non-primate lentiviral vectors based onthe equine infectious anemia virus (EIAV) are also contemplated,especially for ocular gene therapy (see, e.g., Balagaan, J Gene Med2006; 8: 275-285, Published online 21 Nov. 2005 in Wiley InterScienc;available at the website: interscience.wiley.com. DOI: 10.1002/jgm.845).In another embodiment, RetinoStat®, an equine infectious anemiavirus-based lentiviral gene therapy vector that expresses angiostaticproteins endostain and angiostatin that is delivered via a subretinalinjection for the treatment of the web form of age-related maculardegeneration is also contemplated (see, e.g., Binley et al., HUMAN GENETHERAPY 23:980-991 (September 2012)) may be modified for the CRISPR-Cassystem of the present invention.

In another embodiment, self-inactivating lentiviral vectors with ansiRNA targeting a common exon shared by HIV tat/rev, anucleolar-localizing TAR decoy, and an anti-CCR5-specific hammerheadribozyme (see, e.g., DiGiusto et al. (2010) Sci Transl Med 2:36ra43) maybe used/and or adapted to the CRISPR-Cas system of the presentinvention. A minimum of 2.5×10⁶ CD34+ cells per kilogram patient weightmay be collected and prestimulated for 16 to 20 hours in X-VIVO 15medium (Lonza) containing 2 micro mol/L-glutamine, stem cell factor (100ng/ml), Flt-3 ligand (Flt-3L) (100 ng/ml), and thrombopoietin (10 ng/ml)(CellGenix) at a density of 2×10⁶ cells/ml. Prestimulated cells may betransduced with lentiviral at a multiplicity of infection of 5 for 16 to24 hours in 75-cm² tissue culture flasks coated with fibronectin (25mg/cm²) (RetroNectin,Takara Bio Inc.).

Lentiviral vectors have been disclosed as in the treatment forParkinson's Disease, see, e.g., US Patent Publication No. 20120295960and U.S. Pat. Nos. 7,303,910 and 7,351,585. Lentiviral vectors have alsobeen disclosed for the treatment of ocular diseases, see e.g., US PatentPublication Nos. 20060281180, 20090007284, US20110117189; US20090017543;US20070054961, US20100317109. Lentiviral vectors have also beendisclosed for delivery to the train, see, e.g., US Patent PublicationNos. US20110293571; US20110293571, US20040013648, US20070025970,US20090111106 and U.S. Pat. No. 7,259,015.

RNA Delivery

RNA delivery: The CRISPR enzyme, for instance a Cas9, and/or any of thepresent RNAs, for instance a guide RNA, can also be delivered in theform of RNA. Cas9 mRNA can be generated using in vitro transcription.For example, Cas9 mRNA can be synthesized using a PCR cassettecontaining the following elements: T7_promoter-kozak sequence(GCCACC)-Cas9-3′ UTR from beta globin-polyA tail (a string of 120 ormore adenines) (SEQ ID NO: 924). The cassette can be used fortranscription by T7 polymerase. Guide RNAs can also be transcribed usingin vitro transcription from a cassette containing T7_promoter-GG-guideRNA sequence.

To enhance expression and reduce toxicity, the CRISPR enzyme and/orguide RNA can be modified using pseudo-U or 5-Methyl-C.

mRNA delivery methods are especially promising for liver deliverycurrently. In particular, for AAV8 is particularly preferred fordelivery to the liver.

Particle Delivery Systems and/or Formulations:

Several types of particle delivery systems and/or formulations are knownto be useful in a diverse spectrum of biomedical applications. Ingeneral, a particle is defined as a small object that behaves as a wholeunit with respect to its transport and properties. Particles are furtherclassified according to diameter Coarse particles cover a range between2,500 and 10,000 nanometers. Fine particles are sized between 100 and2,500 nanometers. Ultrafine particles, or nanoparticles, are generallybetween 1 and 100 nanometers in size. The basis of the 100-nm limit isthe fact that novel properties that differentiate particles from thebulk material typically develop at a critical length scale of under 100nm.

As used herein, a particle delivery system/formulation is defined as anybiological delivery system/formulation which includes a particle inaccordance with the present invention. A particle in accordance with thepresent invention is any entity having a greatest dimension (e.g.diameter) of less than 100 microns (μm). In some embodiments, inventiveparticles have a greatest dimension of less than 10 μm. In someembodiments, inventive particles have a greatest dimension of less than2000 nanometers (nm). In some embodiments, inventive particles have agreatest dimension of less than 1000 nanometers (nm). In someembodiments, inventive particles have a greatest dimension of less than900 nm, 800 nm, 700 nm, 600 nm, 500 nm, 400 nm, 300 nm, 200 nm, or 100nm. Typically, inventive particles have a greatest dimension (e.g.,diameter) of 500 nm or less. In some embodiments, inventive particleshave a greatest dimension (e.g., diameter) of 250 nm or less. In someembodiments, inventive particles have a greatest dimension (e.g.,diameter) of 200 nm or less. In some embodiments, inventive particleshave a greatest dimension (e.g., diameter) of 150 nm or less. In someembodiments, inventive particles have a greatest dimension (e.g.,diameter) of 100 nm or less. Smaller particles, e.g., having a greatestdimension of 50 nm or less are used in some embodiments of theinvention. In some embodiments, inventive particles have a greatestdimension ranging between 25 nm and 200 nm.

Particle characterization (including e.g., characterizing morphology,dimension, etc.) is done using a variety of different techniques. Commontechniques are electron microscopy (TEM, SEM), atomic force microscopy(AFM), dynamic light scattering (DLS), X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy(XPS), powder X-ray diffraction (XRD), Fourier transform infraredspectroscopy (FTIR), matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionizationtime-of-flight mass spectrometry(MALDI-TOF), ultraviolet-visiblespectroscopy, dual polarisation interferometry and nuclear magneticresonance (NMR). Characterization (dimension measurements) may be madeas to native particles (i.e., preloading) or after loading of the cargo(herein cargo refers to e.g., one or more components of CRISPR-Cassystem e.g., CRISPR enzyme or mRNA or guide RNA, or any combinationthereof, and may include additional components, carriers and/orexcipients) to provide particles of an optimal size for delivery for anyin vitro, ex vivo and/or in vivo application of the present invention.In certain preferred embodiments, particle dimension (e.g., diameter)characterization is based on measurements using dynamic laser scattering(DLS).

Particles delivery systems within the scope of the present invention maybe provided in any form, including but not limited to solid, semi-solid,emulsion, or colloidal particles. As such any of the delivery systemsdescribed herein, including but not limited to, e.g., lipid-basedsystems, liposomes, micelles, microvesicles, exosomes, or gene gun maybe provided as particle delivery systems within the scope of the presentinvention.

Nanoparticles

In terms of this invention, it is preferred to have one or morecomponents of CRISPR complex, e.g., CRISPR enzyme or mRNA or guide RNAdelivered using nanoparticles or lipid envelopes. CRISPR enzyme mRNA andguide RNA may be delivered simultaneously using nanoparticles or lipidenvelopes. Other delivery systems or vectors may be used in conjunctionwith the nanoparticle aspects of the invention.

In general, a “nanoparticle” refers to any particle having a diameter ofless than 1000 nm. In certain preferred embodiments, nanoparticles ofthe invention have a greatest dimension (e.g., diameter) of 500 nm orless. In other preferred embodiments, nanoparticles of the inventionhave a greatest dimension ranging between 25 nm and 200 nm. In otherpreferred embodiments, nanoparticles of the invention have a greatestdimension of 100 nm or less. In other preferred embodiments,nanoparticles of the invention have a greatest dimension ranging between35 nm and 60 nm.

Nanoparticles encompassed in the present invention may be provided indifferent forms, e.g., as solid nanoparticles (e.g., metal such assilver, gold, iron, titanium), non-metal, lipid-based solids, polymers),suspensions of nanoparticles, or combinations thereof. Metal,dielectric, and semiconductor nanoparticles may be prepared, as well ashybrid structures (e.g., core-shell nanoparticles). Nanoparticles madeof semiconducting material may also be labeled quantum dots if they aresmall enough (typically sub 10 nm) that quantization of electronicenergy levels occurs. Such nanoscale particles are used in biomedicalapplications as drug carriers or imaging agents and may be adapted forsimilar purposes in the present invention.

Semi-solid and soft nanoparticles have been manufactured, and are withinthe scope of the present invention. A prototype nanoparticle ofsemi-solid nature is the liposome. Various types of liposomenanoparticles are currently used clinically as delivery systems foranticancer drugs and vaccines. Nanoparticles with one half hydrophilicand the other half hydrophobic are termed Janus particles and areparticularly effective for stabilizing emulsions. They can self-assembleat water/oil interfaces and act as solid surfactants.

For example, Su X, Fricke J, Kavanagh D G, Irvine D J (“In vitro and invivo mRNA delivery using lipid-enveloped pH-responsive polymernanoparticles” Mol Pharm. 2011 Jun. 6; 8(3):774-87. doi:10.1021/mp100390w. Epub 2011 Apr. 1) describes biodegradable core-shellstructured nanoparticles with a poly(β-amino ester) (PBAE) coreenveloped by a phospholipid bilayer shell. These were developed for invivo mRNA delivery. The pH-responsive PBAE component was chosen topromote endosome disruption, while the lipid surface layer was selectedto minimize toxicity of the polycation core. Such are, therefore,preferred for delivering RNA of the present invention.

In one embodiment, nanoparticles based on self assembling bioadhesivepolymers are contemplated, which may be applied to oral delivery ofpeptides, intravenous delivery of peptides and nasal delivery ofpeptides, all to the brain. Other embodiments, such as oral absorptionand ocular deliver of hydrophobic drugs are also contemplated. Themolecular envelope technology involves an engineered polymer envelopewhich is protected and delivered to the site of the disease (see, e.g.,Mazza, M. et al. ACSNano, 2013. 7(2): 1016-1026; Siew, A., et al. MolPharm, 2012. 9(1):14-28; Lalatsa, A., et al. J Contr Rel, 2012.161(2):523-36; Lalatsa, A., et al., Mol Pharm, 2012. 9(6):1665-80;Lalatsa, A., et al. Mol Pharm, 2012. 9(6):1764-74; Garrett, N. L., etal. J Biophotonics, 2012. 5(5-6):458-68; Garrett, N. L., et al. J RamanSpect, 2012. 43(5):681-688; Ahmad, S., et al. J Royal Soc Interface2010. 7:S423-33; Uchegbu, I. F. Expert Opin Drug Deliv, 2006.3(5):629-40; Qu, X., et al. Biomacromolecules, 2006. 7(12):3452-9 andUchegbu, I. F., et al. Int J Pharm, 2001. 224:185-199). Doses of about 5mg/kg are contemplated, with single or multiple doses, depending on thetarget tissue.

In one embodiment, nanoparticles that can deliver RNA to a cancer cellto stop tumor growth developed by Dan Anderson's lab at MIT may beused/and or adapted to the CRISPR Cas system of the present invention.In particular, the Anderson lab developed fully automated, combinatorialsystems for the synthesis, purification, characterization, andformulation of new biomaterials and nanoformulations. See, e.g., Alabiet al., Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2013 Aug. 6; 110(32):12881-6; Zhang etal., Adv Mater. 2013 Sep. 6; 25(33):4641-5; Jiang et al., Nano Lett.2013 Mar. 13; 13(3):1059-64; Karagiannis et al., ACS Nano. 2012 Oct. 23;6(10):8484-7; Whitehead et al., ACS Nano. 2012 Aug. 28; 6(8):6922-9 andLee et al., Nat Nanotechnol. 2012 Jun. 3; 7(6):389-93.

US patent application 20110293703 relates to lipidoid compounds are alsoparticularly useful in the administration of polynucleotides, which maybe applied to deliver the CRISPR Cas system of the present invention. Inone aspect, the aminoalcohol lipidoid compounds are combined with anagent to be delivered to a cell or a subject to form microparticles,nanoparticles, liposomes, or micelles. The agent to be delivered by theparticles, liposomes, or micelles may be in the form of a gas, liquid,or solid, and the agent may be a polynucleotide, protein, peptide, orsmall molecule. The minoalcohol lipidoid compounds may be combined withother aminoalcohol lipidoid compounds, polymers (synthetic or natural),surfactants, cholesterol, carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, etc. to formthe particles. These particles may then optionally be combined with apharmaceutical excipient to form a pharmaceutical composition.

US Patent Publication No. 0110293703 also provides methods of preparingthe aminoalcohol lipidoid compounds. One or more equivalents of an amineare allowed to react with one or more equivalents of anepoxide-terminated compound under suitable conditions to form anaminoalcohol lipidoid compound of the present invention. In certainembodiments, all the amino groups of the amine are fully reacted withthe epoxide-terminated compound to form tertiary amines. In otherembodiments, all the amino groups of the amine are not fully reactedwith the epoxide-terminated compound to form tertiary amines therebyresulting in primary or secondary amines in the aminoalcohol lipidoidcompound. These primary or secondary amines are left as is or may bereacted with another electrophile such as a different epoxide-terminatedcompound. As will be appreciated by one skilled in the art, reacting anamine with less than excess of epoxide-terminated compound will resultin a plurality of different aminoalcohol lipidoid compounds with variousnumbers of tails. Certain amines may be fully functionalized with twoepoxide-derived compound tails while other molecules will not becompletely functionalized with epoxide-derived compound tails. Forexample, a diamine or polyamine may include one, two, three, or fourepoxide-derived compound tails off the various amino moieties of themolecule resulting in primary, secondary, and tertiary amines. Incertain embodiments, all the amino groups are not fully functionalized.In certain embodiments, two of the same types of epoxide-terminatedcompounds are used. In other embodiments, two or more differentepoxide-terminated compounds are used. The synthesis of the aminoalcohollipidoid compounds is performed with or without solvent, and thesynthesis may be performed at higher temperatures ranging from 30.-100C., preferably at approximately 50.-90 C. The prepared aminoalcohollipidoid compounds may be optionally purified. For example, the mixtureof aminoalcohol lipidoid compounds may be purified to yield anaminoalcohol lipidoid compound with a particular number ofepoxide-derived compound tails. Or the mixture may be purified to yielda particular stereo- or regioisomer. The aminoalcohol lipidoid compoundsmay also be alkylated using an alkyl halide (e.g., methyl iodide) orother alkylating agent, and/or they may be acylated.

US Patent Publication No. 0110293703 also provides libraries ofaminoalcohol lipidoid compounds prepared by the inventive methods. Theseaminoalcohol lipidoid compounds may be prepared and/or screened usinghigh-throughput techniques involving liquid handlers, robots, microtiterplates, computers, etc. In certain embodiments, the aminoalcohollipidoid compounds are screened for their ability to transfectpolynucleotides or other agents (e.g., proteins, peptides, smallmolecules) into the cell.

US Patent Publication No. 20130302401 relates to a class ofpoly(beta-amino alcohols) (PBAAs) has been prepared using combinatorialpolymerization. The inventive PBAAs may be used in biotechnology andbiomedical applications as coatings (such as coatings of films ormultilayer films for medical devices or implants), additives, materials,excipients, non-biofouling agents, micropatterning agents, and cellularencapsulation agents. When used as surface coatings, these PBAAselicited different levels of inflammation, both in vitro and in vivo,depending on their chemical structures. The large chemical diversity ofthis class of materials allowed us to identify polymer coatings thatinhibit macrophage activation in vitro. Furthermore, these coatingsreduce the recruitment of inflammatory cells, and reduce fibrosis,following the subcutaneous implantation of carboxylated polystyrenemicroparticles. These polymers may be used to form polyelectrolytecomplex capsules for cell encapsulation. The invention may also havemany other biological applications such as antimicrobial coatings, DNAor siRNA delivery, and stem cell tissue engineering. The teachings of USPatent Publication No. 20130302401 may be applied to the CRISPR Cassystem of the present invention.

In another embodiment, lipid nanoparticles (LNPs) are contemplated. Inparticular, an antitransthyretin small interfering RNA encapsulated inlipid nanoparticles (see, e.g., Coelho et al., N Engl J Med 2013;369:819-29) may be applied to the CRISPR Cas system of the presentinvention. Doses of about 0.01 to about 1 mg per kg of body weightadministered intravenously are contemplated. Medications to reduce therisk of infusion-related reactions are contemplated, such asdexamethasone, acetampinophen, diphenhydramine or cetirizine, andranitidine are contemplated. Multiple doses of about 0.3 mg per kilogramevery 4 weeks for five doses are also contemplated.

LNPs have been shown to be highly effective in delivering siRNAs to theliver (see, e.g., Tabernero et al., Cancer Discovery, April 2013, Vol.3, No. 4, pages 363-470) and are therefore contemplated for deliveringCRISPR Cas to the liver. A dosage of about four doses of 6 mg/kg of theLNP (or RNA of the CRISPR-Cas) every two weeks may be contemplated.Tabernero et al. demonstrated that tumor regression was observed afterthe first 2 cycles of LNPs dosed at 0.7 mg/kg, and by the end of 6cycles the patient had achieved a partial response with completeregression of the lymph node metastasis and substantial shrinkage of theliver tumors. A complete response was obtained after 40 doses in thispatient, who has remained in remission and completed treatment afterreceiving doses over 26 months. Two patients with RCC and extrahepaticsites of disease including kidney, lung, and lymph nodes that wereprogressing following prior therapy with VEGF pathway inhibitors hadstable disease at all sites for approximately 8 to 12 months, and apatient with PNET and liver metastases continued on the extension studyfor 18 months (36 doses) with stable disease.

However, the charge of the LNP must be taken into consideration. Ascationic lipids combined with negatively charged lipids to inducenonbilayer structures that facilitate intracellular delivery. Becausecharged LNPs are rapidly cleared from circulation following intravenousinjection, ionizable cationic lipids with pKa values below 7 weredeveloped (see, e.g., Rosin et al, Molecular Therapy, vol. 19, no. 12,pages 1286-2200, December 2011). Negatively charged polymers such assiRNA oligonucleotides may be loaded into LNPs at low pH values (e.g.,pH 4) where the ionizable lipids display a positive charge. However, atphysiological pH values, the LNPs exhibit a low surface chargecompatible with longer circulation times. Four species of ionizablecationic lipids have been focused upon, namely1,2-dilineoyl-3-dimethylammonium-propane (DLinDAP),1,2-dilinoleyloxy-3-N,N-dimethylaminopropane (DLinDMA),1,2-dilinoleyloxy-keto-N,N-dimethyl-3-aminopropane (DLinKDMA), and1,2-dilinoleyl-4-(2-dimethylaminoethyl)-[1,3]-dioxolane (DLinKC2-DMA).It has been shown that LNP siRNA systems containing these lipids exhibitremarkably different gene silencing properties in hepatocytes in vivo,with potencies varying according to the seriesDLinKC2-DMA>DLinKDMA>DLinDMA»DLinDAP employing a Factor VII genesilencing model (see, e.g., Rosin et al, Molecular Therapy, vol. 19, no.12, pages 1286-2200, December 2011). A dosage of 1 μg/ml levels may becontemplated, especially for a formulation containing DLinKC2-DMA.

Preparation of LNPs and CRISPR Cas encapsulation may be used/and oradapted from Rosin et al, Molecular Therapy, vol. 19, no. 12, pages1286-2200, December 2011). The cationic lipids1,2-dilineoyl-3-dimethylammonium-propane (DLinDAP),1,2-dilinoleyloxy-3-N,N-dimethylaminopropane (DLinDMA),1,2-dilinoleyloxyketo-N,N-dimethyl-3-aminopropane (DLinK-DMA),1,2-dilinoleyl-4-(2-dimethylaminoethyl)-[1,3]-dioxolane (DLinKC2-DMA),(3-o-[2″-(methoxypolyethyleneglycol 2000)succinoyl]-1,2-dimyristoyl-sn-glycol (PEG-S-DMG), andR-3-[(w-methoxy-poly(ethylene glycol)2000)carbamoyl]-1,2-dimyristyloxlpropyl-3-amine (PEG-C-DOMG) may be providedby Tekmira Pharmaceuticals (Vancouver, Canada) or synthesized.Cholesterol may be purchased from Sigma (St Louis, Mo.). The specificCRISPR Cas RNA may be encapsulated in LNPs containing DLinDAP, DLinDMA,DLinK-DMA, and DLinKC2-DMA (cationic lipid:DSPC:CHOL: PEGS-DMG orPEG-C-DOMG at 40:10:40:10 molar ratios). When required, 0.2% SP-DiOC18(Invitrogen, Burlington, Canada) may be incorporated to assess cellularuptake, intracellular delivery, and biodistribution. Encapsulation maybe performed by dissolving lipid mixtures comprised of cationiclipid:DSPC:cholesterol:PEG-c-DOMG (40:10:40:10 molar ratio) in ethanolto a final lipid concentration of 10 mmol/1. This ethanol solution oflipid may be added drop-wise to 50 mmol/1 citrate, pH 4.0 to formmultilamellar vesicles to produce a final concentration of 30% ethanolvol/vol. Large unilamellar vesicles may be formed following extrusion ofmultilamellar vesicles through two stacked 80 nm Nuclepore polycarbonatefilters using the Extruder (Northern Lipids, Vancouver, Canada).Encapsulation may be achieved by adding RNA dissolved at 2 mg/ml in 50mmol/1 citrate, pH 4.0 containing 30% ethanol vol/vol drop-wise toextruded preformed large unilamellar vesicles and incubation at 31° C.for 30 minutes with constant mixing to a final RNA/lipid weight ratio of0.06/1 wt/wt. Removal of ethanol and neutralization of formulationbuffer were performed by dialysis against phosphate-buffered saline(PBS), pH 7.4 for 16 hours using Spectra/Por 2 regenerated cellulosedialysis membranes. Nanoparticle size distribution may be determined bydynamic light scattering using a NICOMP 370 particle sizer, thevesicle/intensity modes, and Gaussian fitting (Nicomp Particle Sizing,Santa Barbara, Calif.). The particle size for all three LNP systems maybe ˜70 nm in diameter. siRNA encapsulation efficiency may be determinedby removal of free siRNA using VivaPureD MiniH columns (Sartorius StedimBiotech) from samples collected before and after dialysis. Theencapsulated RNA may be extracted from the eluted nanoparticles andquantified at 260 nm. siRNA to lipid ratio was determined by measurementof cholesterol content in vesicles using the Cholesterol E enzymaticassay from Wako Chemicals USA (Richmond, Va.). PEGylated liposomes (orLNPs) can also be used for delivery.

Preparation of large LNPs may be used/and or adapted from Rosin et al,Molecular Therapy, vol. 19, no. 12, pages 1286-2200, December 2011. Alipid premix solution (20.4 mg/ml total lipid concentration) may beprepared in ethanol containing DLinKC2-DMA, DSPC, and cholesterol at50:10:38.5 molar ratios. Sodium acetate may be added to the lipid premixat a molar ratio of 0.75:1 (sodium acetate:DLinKC2-DMA). The lipids maybe subsequently hydrated by combining the mixture with 1.85 volumes ofcitrate buffer (10 mmol/1, pH 3.0) with vigorous stirring, resulting inspontaneous liposome formation in aqueous buffer containing 35% ethanol.The liposome solution may be incubated at 37° C. to allow fortime-dependent increase in particle size. Aliquots may be removed atvarious times during incubation to investigate changes in liposome sizeby dynamic light scattering (Zetasizer Nano Z S, Malvern Instruments,Worcestershire, UK). Once the desired particle size is achieved, anaqueous PEG lipid solution (stock=10 mg/ml PEG-DMG in 35% (vol/vol)ethanol) may be added to the liposome mixture to yield a final PEG molarconcentration of 3.5% of total lipid. Upon addition of PEG-lipids, theliposomes should their size, effectively quenching further growth. RNAmay then be added to the empty liposomes at an siRNA to total lipidratio of approximately 1:10 (wt:wt), followed by incubation for 30minutes at 37° C. to form loaded LNPs. The mixture may be subsequentlydialyzed overnight in PBS and filtered with a 0.45-μm syringe filter.

Spherical Nucleic Acid (SNA™) constructs and other nanoparticles(particularly gold nanoparticles) are also contemplate as a means todelivery CRISPR/Cas system to intended targets. Significant data showthat AuraSense Therapeutics' Spherical Nucleic Acid (SNA™) constructs,based upon nucleic acid-functionalized gold nanoparticles, are superiorto alternative platforms based on multiple key success factors, such as:

High in vivo stability. Due to their dense loading, a majority of cargo(DNA or siRNA) remains bound to the constructs inside cells, conferringnucleic acid stability and resistance to enzymatic degradation.

Deliverability. For all cell types studied (e.g., neurons, tumor celllines, etc.) the constructs demonstrate a transfection efficiency of 99%with no need for carriers or transfection agents.

Therapeutic targeting. The unique target binding affinity andspecificity of the constructs allow exquisite specificity for matchedtarget sequences (i.e., limited off-target effects).

Superior efficacy. The constructs significantly outperform leadingconventional transfection reagents (Lipofectamine 2000 and Cytofectin).

Low toxicity. The constructs can enter a variety of cultured cells,primary cells, and tissues with no apparent toxicity.

No significant immune response. The constructs elicit minimal changes inglobal gene expression as measured by whole-genome microarray studiesand cytokine-specific protein assays.

Chemical tailorability. Any number of single or combinatorial agents(e.g., proteins, peptides, small molecules) can be used to tailor thesurface of the constructs.

This platform for nucleic acid-based therapeutics may be applicable tonumerous disease states, including inflammation and infectious disease,cancer, skin disorders and cardiovascular disease.

Citable literature includes: Cutler et al., J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2011133:9254-9257, Hao et al., Small. 2011 7:3158-3162, Zhang et al., ACSNano. 2011 5:6962-6970, Cutler et al., J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2012134:1376-1391, Young et al., Nano Lett. 2012 12:3867-71, Zheng et al.,Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 2012 109:11975-80, Mirkin, Nanomedicine 20127:635-638 Zhang et al., J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2012 134:16488-1691,Weintraub, Nature 2013 495:S14-S16, Choi et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci.USA. 2013 110(19):7625-7630, Jensen et al., Sci. Transl. Med. 5,209ra152 (2013) and Mirkin, et al., Small,doi.org/10.1002/sm11.201302143.

Self-assembling nanoparticles with siRNA may be constructed withpolyethyleneimine (PEI) that is PEGylated with an Arg-Gly-Asp (RGD)peptide ligand attached at the distal end of the polyethylene glycol(PEG), for example, as a means to target tumor neovasculature expressingintegrins and used to deliver siRNA inhibiting vascular endothelialgrowth factor receptor-2 (VEGF R2) expression and thereby tumorangiogenesis (see, e.g., Schiffelers et al., Nucleic Acids Research,2004, Vol. 32, No. 19). Nanoplexes may be prepared by mixing equalvolumes of aqueous solutions of cationic polymer and nucleic acid togive a net molar excess of ionizable nitrogen (polymer) to phosphate(nucleic acid) over the range of 2 to 6. The electrostatic interactionsbetween cationic polymers and nucleic acid resulted in the formation ofpolyplexes with average particle size distribution of about 100 nm,hence referred to here as nanoplexes. A dosage of about 100 to 200 mg ofCRISPR Cas is envisioned for delivery in the self-assemblingnanoparticles of Schiffelers et al.

The nanoplexes of Bartlett et al. (PNAS, Sep. 25, 2007,vol. 104, no. 39)may also be applied to the present invention. The nanoplexes of Bartlettet al. are prepared by mixing equal volumes of aqueous solutions ofcationic polymer and nucleic acid to give a net molar excess ofionizable nitrogen (polymer) to phosphate (nucleic acid) over the rangeof 2 to 6. The electrostatic interactions between cationic polymers andnucleic acid resulted in the formation of polyplexes with averageparticle size distribution of about 100 nm, hence referred to here asnanoplexes. The DOTA-siRNA of Bartlett et al. was synthesized asfollows: 1,4,7,10-tetraazacyclododecane-1,4,7,10-tetraacetic acidmono(N-hydroxysuccinimide ester) (DOTA-NHSester) was ordered fromMacrocyclics (Dallas, Tex.). The amine modified RNA sense strand with a100-fold molar excess of DOTA-NHS-ester in carbonate buffer (pH 9) wasadded to a microcentrifuge tube. The contents were reacted by stirringfor 4 h at room temperature. The DOTA-RNAsense conjugate wasethanol-precipitated, resuspended in water, and annealed to theunmodified antisense strand to yield DOTA-siRNA. All liquids werepretreated with Chelex-100 (Bio-Rad, Hercules, Calif.) to remove tracemetal contaminants. Tf-targeted and nontargeted siRNA nanoparticles maybe formed by using cyclodextrin-containing polycations. Typically,nanoparticles were formed in water at a charge ratio of 3 (+/−) and ansiRNA concentration of 0.5 g/liter. One percent of the adamantane-PEGmolecules on the surface of the targeted nanoparticles were modifiedwith Tf (adamantane-PEG-Tf). The nanoparticles were suspended in a 5%(wt/vol) glucose carrier solution for injection.

Davis et al. (Nature, Vol 464, 15 Apr. 2010) conducts a siRNA clinicaltrial that uses a targeted nanoparticle-delivery system (clinical trialregistration number NCT00689065). Patients with solid cancers refractoryto standard-of-care therapies are administered doses of targetednanoparticles on days 1, 3, 8 and 10 of a 21-day cycle by a 30-minintravenous infusion. The nanoparticles consist of a synthetic deliverysystem containing: (1) a linear, cyclodextrin-based polymer (CDP), (2) ahuman transferrin protein (TF) targeting ligand displayed on theexterior of the nanoparticle to engage TF receptors (TFR) on the surfaceof the cancer cells, (3) a hydrophilic polymer (polyethylene glycol(PEG) used to promote nanoparticle stability in biological fluids), and(4) siRNA designed to reduce the expression of the RRM2 (sequence usedin the clinic was previously denoted siR2B+5). The TFR has long beenknown to be upregulated in malignant cells, and RRM2 is an establishedanti-cancer target. These nanoparticles (clinical version denoted asCALAA-01) have been shown to be well tolerated in multi-dosing studiesin non-human primates. Although a single patient with chronic myeloidleukaemia has been administered siRNAby liposomal delivery, Davis etal.'s clinical trial is the initial human trial to systemically deliversiRNA with a targeted delivery system and to treat patients with solidcancer. To ascertain whether the targeted delivery system can provideeffective delivery of functional siRNA to human tumours, Davis et al.investigated biopsies from three patients from three different dosingcohorts; patients A, B and C, all of whom had metastatic melanoma andreceived CALAA-01 doses of 18, 24 and 30 mg m⁻² siRNA, respectively.Similar doses may also be contemplated for the CRISPR Cas system of thepresent invention. The delivery of the invention may be achieved withnanoparticles containing a linear, cyclodextrin-based polymer (CDP), ahuman transferrin protein (TF) targeting ligand displayed on theexterior of the nanoparticle to engage TF receptors (TFR) on the surfaceof the cancer cells and/or a hydrophilic polymer (for example,polyethylene glycol (PEG) used to promote nanoparticle stability inbiological fluids).

Exosomes

Exosomes are endogenous nano-vesicles that transport RNAs and proteinswhich can deliver short interfering (si)RNA to the brain in mice. Toreduce immunogenicity, Alvarez-Erviti et al. (2011, Nat Biotechnol 29:341) used self-derived dendritic cells for exosome production. Targetingwas achieved by engineering the dendritic cells to express Lamp2b, anexosomal membrane protein, fused to the neuron-specific RVG peptide.Purified exosomes were loaded with exogenous siRNA by electroporation.Intravenously injected RVG-targeted exosomes delivered GAPDH siRNAspecifically to neurons, microglia, oligodendrocytes in the brain,resulting in a specific gene knockdown. Pre-exposure to RVG exosomes didnot attenuate knockdown, and non-specific uptake in other tissues wasnot observed. The therapeutic potential of exosome-mediated siRNAdelivery was demonstrated by the strong mRNA (60%) and protein (62%)knockdown of BACE1, a therapeutic target in Alzheimer's disease.

To obtain a pool of immunologically inert exosomes, Alvarez-Erviti etal. harvested bone marrow from inbred C57BL/6 mice with a homogenousmajor histocompatibility complex (MEW) haplotype. As immature dendriticcells produce large quantities of exosomes devoid of T-cell activatorssuch as MHC-II and CD86, Alvarez-Erviti et al. selected for dendriticcells with granulocyte/macrophage-colony stimulating factor (GM-CSF) for7 d. Exosomes were purified from the culture supernatant the followingday using well-established ultracentrifugation protocols. The exosomesproduced were physically homogenous, with a size distribution peaking at80 nm in diameter as determined by nanoparticle tracking analysis (NTA)and electron microscopy. Alvarez-Erviti et al. obtained 6-12 μg ofexosomes (measured based on protein concentration) per 10⁶ cells.

Next, Alvarez-Erviti et al. investigated the possibility of loadingmodified exosomes with exogenous cargoes using electroporation protocolsadapted for nanoscale applications. As electroporation for membraneparticles at the nanometer scale is not well-characterized, nonspecificCy5-labeled siRNA was used for the empirical optimization of theelectroporation protocol. The amount of encapsulated siRNA was assayedafter ultracentrifugation and lysis of exosomes. Electroporation at 400V and 125 μF resulted in the greatest retention of siRNA and was usedfor all subsequent experiments.

Alvarez-Erviti et al. administered 150 μg of each BACE1 siRNAencapsulated in 150 μg of RVG exosomes to normal C57BL/6 mice andcompared the knockdown efficiency to four controls: untreated mice, miceinjected with RVG exosomes only, mice injected with BACE1 siRNAcomplexed to an in vivo cationic liposome reagent and mice injected withBACE1 siRNA complexed to RVG-9R, the RVG pep tide conjugated to 9D-arginines that electrostatically binds to the siRNA. Cortical tissuesamples were analyzed 3 d after administration and a significant proteinknockdown (45%, P<0.05, versus 62%, P<0.01) in both siRNA-RVG-9R-treatedand siRNARVG exosome-treated mice was observed, resulting from asignificant decrease in BACE1 mRNA levels (66% [+ or −] 15%, P<0.001 and61% [+ or -] 13% respectively, P<0.01). Moreover, Applicantsdemonstrated a significant decrease (55%, P<0.05) in the total[beta]-amyloid 1-42 levels, a main component of the amyloid plaques inAlzheimer's pathology, in the RVG-exosome-treated animals. The decreaseobserved was greater than the β-amyloid 1-40 decrease demonstrated innormal mice after intraventricular injection of BACE1 inhibitors.Alvarez-Erviti et al. carried out 5′-rapid amplification of cDNA ends(RACE) on BACE1 cleavage product, which provided evidence ofRNAi-mediated knockdown by the siRNA.

Finally, Alvarez-Erviti et al. investigated whether siRNA-RVG exosomesinduced immune responses in vivo by assessing IL-6, IP-10, TNFα andIFN-α serum concentrations. Following siRNA-RVG exosome treatment,nonsignificant changes in all cytokines were registered similar tosiRNA-transfection reagent treatment in contrast to siRNA-RVG-9R, whichpotently stimulated IL-6 secretion, confirming the immunologically inertprofile of the exosome treatment. Given that exosomes encapsulate only20% of siRNA, delivery with RVG-exosome appears to be more efficientthan RVG-9R delivery as comparable mRNA knockdown and greater proteinknockdown was achieved with fivefold less siRNA without thecorresponding level of immune stimulation. This experiment demonstratedthe therapeutic potential of RVG-exosome technology, which ispotentially suited for long-term silencing of genes related toneurodegenerative diseases. The exosome delivery system ofAlvarez-Erviti et al. may be applied to deliver the CRISPR-Cas system ofthe present invention to therapeutic targets, especiallyneurodegenerative diseases. A dosage of about 100 to 1000 mg of CRISPRCas encapsulated in about 100 to 1000 mg of RVG exosomes may becontemplated for the present invention.

El-Andaloussi et al. (Nature Protocols 7,2112-2126(2012)) discloses howexosomes derived from cultured cells can be harnessed for delivery ofsiRNA in vitro and in vivo. This protocol first describes the generationof targeted exosomes through transfection of an expression vector,comprising an exosomal protein fused with a peptide ligand. Next,El-Andaloussi et al. explain how to purify and characterize exosomesfrom transfected cell supernatant. Next, El-Andaloussi et al. detailcrucial steps for loading siRNA into exosomes. Finally, El-Andaloussi etal. outline how to use exosomes to efficiently deliver siRNA in vitroand in vivo in mouse brain. Examples of anticipated results in whichexosome-mediated siRNA delivery is evaluated by functional assays andimaging are also provided. The entire protocol takes ˜3 weeks. Deliveryor administration according to the invention may be performed usingexosomes produced from self-derived dendritic cells.

In another embodiment, the plasma exosomes of Wahlgren et al. (NucleicAcids Research, 2012, Vol. 40, No. 17 e130) are contemplated. Exosomesare nano-sized vesicles (30-90 nm in size) produced by many cell types,including dendritic cells (DC), B cells, T cells, mast cells, epithelialcells and tumor cells. These vesicles are formed by inward budding oflate endosomes and are then released to the extracellular environmentupon fusion with the plasma membrane. Because exosomes naturally carryRNA between cells, this property might be useful in gene therapy.

Exosomes from plasma are prepared by centrifugation of buffy coat at 900g for 20 min to isolate the plasma followed by harvesting cellsupernatants, centrifuging at 300 g for 10 min to eliminate cells and at16 500 g for 30 min followed by filtration through a 0.22 mm filter.Exosomes are pelleted by ultracentrifugation at 120 000 g for 70 min.Chemical transfection of siRNA into exosomes is carried out according tothe manufacturer's instructions in RNAi Human/Mouse Starter Kit(Quiagen, Hilden, Germany). siRNA is added to 100 ml PBS at a finalconcentration of 2 mmol/ml. After adding HiPerFect transfection reagent,the mixture is incubated for 10 min at RT. In order to remove the excessof micelles, the exosomes are re-isolated using aldehyde/sulfate latexbeads. The chemical transfection of CRISPR Cas into exosomes may beconducted similarly to siRNA. The exosomes may be co-cultured withmonocytes and lymphocytes isolated from the peripheral blood of healthydonors. Therefore, it may be contemplated that exosomes containingCRISPR Cas may be introduced to monocytes and lymphocytes of andautologously reintroduced into a human. Accordingly, delivery oradministration according to the invention may beperformed using plasmaexosomes.

Liposomes

Delivery or administration according to the invention can be performedwith liposomes. Liposomes are spherical vesicle structures composed of auni- or multilamellar lipid bilayer surrounding internal aqueouscompartments and a relatively impermeable outer lipophilic phospholipidbilayer. Liposomes have gained considerable attention as drug deliverycarriers because they are biocompatible, nontoxic, can deliver bothhydrophilic and lipophilic drug molecules, protect their cargo fromdegradation by plasma enzymes, and transport their load acrossbiological membranes and the blood brain barrier (BBB) (see, e.g., Spuchand Navarro, Journal of Drug Delivery, vol. 2011, Article ID 469679, 12pages, 2011. doi:10.1155/2011/469679 for review).

Liposomes can be made from several different types of lipids; however,phospholipids are most commonly used to generate liposomes as drugcarriers. Although liposome formation is spontaneous when a lipid filmis mixed with an aqueous solution, it can also be expedited by applyingforce in the form of shaking by using a homogenizer, sonicator, or anextrusion apparatus (see, e.g., Spuch and Navarro, Journal of DrugDelivery, vol. 2011, Article ID 469679, 12 pages, 2011.doi:10.1155/2011/469679 for review).

Several other additives may be added to liposomes in order to modifytheir structure and properties. For instance, either cholesterol orsphingomyelin may be added to the liposomal mixture in order to helpstabilize the liposomal structure and to prevent the leakage of theliposomal inner cargo. Further, liposomes are prepared from hydrogenatedegg phosphatidylcholine or egg phosphatidylcholine, cholesterol, anddicetyl phosphate, and their mean vesicle sizes were adjusted to about50 and 100 nm. (see, e.g., Spuch and Navarro, Journal of Drug Delivery,vol. 2011, Article ID 469679, 12 pages, 2011. doi:10.1155/2011/469679for review).

Conventional liposome formulation is mainly comprised of naturalphospholipids and lipids such as1,2-distearoryl-sn-glycero-3-phosphatidyl choline (DSPC), sphingomyelin,egg phosphatidylcholines and monosialoganglioside. Since thisformulation is made up of phospholipids only, liposomal formulationshave encountered many challenges, one of the ones being the instabilityin plasma. Several attempts to overcome these challenges have been made,specifically in the manipulation of the lipid membrane. One of theseattempts focused on the manipulation of cholesterol. Addition ofcholesterol to conventional formulations reduces rapid release of theencapsulated bioactive compound into the plasma or1,2-dioleoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphoethanolamine (DOPE) increases thestability (see, e.g., Spuch and Navarro, Journal of Drug Delivery, vol.2011, Article ID 469679, 12 pages, 2011. doi:10.1155/2011/469679 forreview).

In a particularly advantageous embodiment, Trojan Horse liposomes (alsoknown as Molecular Trojan Horses) are desirable and protocols may befound at cshprotocols.cshlp.org/content/2010/4/pdb.prot5407.long. Theseparticles allow delivery of a transgene to the entire brain after anintravascular injection. Without being bound by limitation, it isbelieved that neutral lipid particles with specific antibodiesconjugated to surface allow crossing of the blood brain barrier viaendocytosis. Applicant postulates utilizing Trojan Horse Liposomes todeliver the CRISPR family of nucleases to the brain via an intravascularinjection, which would allow whole brain transgenic animals without theneed for embryonic manipulation. About 1-5 g of nucleic acid molecule,e.g., DNA, RNA, may be contemplated for in vivo administration inliposomes.

In another embodiment, the CRISPR Cas system may be administered inliposomes, such as a stable nucleic-acid-lipid particle (SNALP) (see,e.g., Morrissey et al., Nature Biotechnology, Vol. 23, No. 8, August2005). Daily intravenous injections of about 1, 3 or 5 mg/kg/day of aspecific CRISPR Cas targeted in a SNALP are contemplated. The dailytreatment may be over about three days and then weekly for about fiveweeks. In another embodiment, a specific CRISPR Cas encapsulated SNALP)administered by intravenous injection to at doses of abpit 1 or 2.5mg/kg are also contemplated (see, e.g., Zimmerman et al., NatureLetters, Vol. 441, 4 May 2006). The SNALP formulation may contain thelipids 3-N-[(wmethoxypoly(ethylene glycol) 2000)carbamoyl]-1,2-dimyristyloxy-propylamine (PEG-C-DMA),1,2-dilinoleyloxy-N,N-dimethyl-3-aminopropane (DLinDMA),1,2-distearoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine (DSPC) and cholesterol, in a2:40:10:48 molar percent ratio (see, e.g., Zimmerman et al., NatureLetters, Vol. 441, 4 May 2006).

In another embodiment, stable nucleic-acid-lipid particles (SNALPs) haveproven to be effective delivery molecules to highly vascularizedHepG2-derived liver tumors but not in poorly vascularized HCT-116derived liver tumors (see, e.g., Li, Gene Therapy (2012) 19, 775-780).The SNALP liposomes may be prepared by formulating D-Lin-DMA andPEG-C-DMA with distearoylphosphatidylcholine (DSPC), Cholesterol andsiRNA using a 25:1 lipid/siRNA ratio and a 48/40/10/2 molar ratio ofCholesterol/D-Lin-DMA/DSPC/PEG-C-DMA. The resulted SNALP liposomes areabout 80-100 nm in size.

In yet another embodiment, a SNALP may comprise synthetic cholesterol(Sigma-Aldrich, St Louis, Mo., USA), dipalmitoylphosphatidylcholine(Avanti Polar Lipids, Alabaster, Ala., USA), 3-N-[(w-methoxypoly(ethylene glycol)2000)carbamoyl]-1,2-dimyrestyloxypropylamine, andcationic 1,2-dilinoleyloxy-3-N,Ndimethylaminopropane (see, e.g.,Geisbert et al., Lancet 2010; 375: 1896-905). A dosage of about 2 mg/kgtotal CRISPR Cas per dose administered as, for example, a bolusintravenous infusion may be contemplated.

In yet another embodiment, a SNALP may comprise synthetic cholesterol(Sigma-Aldrich), 1,2-distearoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine (DSPC;Avanti Polar Lipids Inc.), PEG-cDMA, and1,2-dilinoleyloxy-3-(N;N-dimethyl)aminopropane (DLinDMA) (see, e.g.,Judge, J. Clin. Invest. 119:661-673 (2009)). Formulations used for invivo studies may comprise a final lipid/RNA mass ratio of about 9:1.

The safety profile of RNAi nanomedicines has been reviewed by Barros andGollob of Alnylam Pharmaceuticals (see, e.g., Advanced Drug DeliveryReviews 64 (2012) 1730-1737). The stable nucleic acid lipid particle(SNALP) is comprised of four different lipids—an ionizable lipid(DLinDMA) that is cationic at low pH, a neutral helper lipid,cholesterol, and a diffusible polyethylene glycol (PEG)-lipid. Theparticle is approximately 80 nm in diameter and is charge-neutral atphysiologic pH. During formulation, the ionizable lipid serves tocondense lipid with the anionic siRNA during particle formation. Whenpositively charged under increasingly acidic endosomal conditions, theionizable lipid also mediates the fusion of SNALP with the endosomalmembrane enabling release of siRNA into the cytoplasm. The PEG-lipidstabilizes the particle and reduces aggregation during formulation, andsubsequently provides a neutral hydrophilic exterior that improvespharmacokinetic properties.

To date, two clinical programs have been initiated using SNALPsiRNAformulations. Tekmira Pharmaceuticals recently completed a phase Isingle-dose study of SNALP-ApoB in adult volunteers with elevated LDLcholesterol. ApoB is predominantly expressed in the liver and jejunumand is essential for the assembly and secretion of VLDL and LDL. ApoB isalso succesfuly targeted by our CrISPR-Cas systems, see examples 38-39.Seventeen subjects received a single dose of SNALP-ApoB (dose escalationacross 7 dose levels). There was no evidence of liver toxicity(anticipated as the potential dose-limiting toxicity based onpreclinical studies). One (of two) subjects at the highest doseexperienced flu-like symptoms consistent with immune system stimulation,and the decision was made to conclude the trial.

Alnylam Pharmaceuticals has similarly advanced ALN-TTR01, which employsthe SNALP technology described above and targets hepatocyte productionof both mutant and wild-type TTR to treat TTR amyloidosis (ATTR). ThreeATTR syndromes have been described: familial amyloidotic polyneuropathy(FAP) and familial amyloidotic cardiomyopathy (FAC) both caused byautosomal dominant mutations in TTR; and senile systemic amyloidosis(SSA) cause by wildtype TTR. A placebo-controlled, singledose-escalation phase I trial of ALN-TTR01 was recently completed inpatients with ATTR. ALN-TTR01 was administered as a 15-minute IVinfusion to 31 patients (23 with study drug and 8 with placebo) within adose range of 0.01 to 1.0 mg/kg (based on siRNA). Treatment was welltolerated with no significant increases in liver function tests.Infusion-related reactions were noted in 3 of 23 patients at ≥0.4 mg/kg;all responded to slowing of the infusion rate and all continued onstudy. Minimal and transient elevations of serum cytokines IL-6, IP-10and IL-1ra were noted in two patients at the highest dose of 1 mg/kg (asanticipated from preclinical and NHP studies). Lowering of serum TTR,the expected pharmacodynamics effect of ALN-TTR01, was observed at 1mg/kg.

In yet another embodiment, a SNALP may be made by solubilizing acationic lipid, DSPC, cholesterol and PEG-lipid were solubilized inethanol at a molar ratio of 40:10:40:10, respectively (see, Semple etal., Nature Niotechnology, Volume 28 Number 2 Feb. 2010, pp. 172-177).The lipid mixture was added to an aqueous buffer (50 mM citrate, pH 4)with mixing to a final ethanol and lipid concentration of 30% (vol/vol)and 6.1 mg/ml, respectively, and allowed to equilibrate at 22° C. for 2min before extrusion. The hydrated lipids were extruded through twostacked 80 nm pore-sized filters (Nuclepore) at 22° C. using a LipexExtruder (Northern Lipids) until a vesicle diameter of 70-90 nm, asdetermined by dynamic light scattering analysis, was obtained. Thisgenerally required 1-3 passes. The siRNA (solubilized in a 50 mMcitrate, pH 4 aqueous solution containing 30% ethanol) was added to thepre-equilibrated (35° C.) vesicles at a rate of −5 ml/min with mixing.After a final target siRNA/lipid ratio of 0.06 (wt/wt) was reached, themixture was incubated for a further 30 min at 35° C. to allow vesiclereorganization and encapsulation of the siRNA. The ethanol was thenremoved and the external buffer replaced with PBS (155 mM NaCl, 3 mMNa2HPO4, 1 mM KH2PO4, pH 7.5) by either dialysis or tangential flowdiafiltration. siRNA were encapsulated in SNALP using a controlledstep-wise dilution method process. The lipid constituents of KC2-SNALPwere DLin-KC2-DMA (cationic lipid), dipalmitoylphosphatidylcholine(DPPC; Avanti Polar Lipids), synthetic cholesterol (Sigma) and PEG-C-DMAused at a molar ratio of 57.1:7.1:34.3:1.4. Upon formation of the loadedparticles, SNALP were dialyzed against PBS and filter sterilized througha 0.2 μm filter before use. Mean particle sizes were 75-85 nm and 90-95%of the siRNA was encapsulated within the lipid particles. The finalsiRNA/lipid ratio in formulations used for in vivo testing was ˜0.15(wt/wt). LNP-siRNA systems containing Factor VII siRNA were diluted tothe appropriate concentrations in sterile PBS immediately before use andthe formulations were administered intravenously through the lateraltail vein in a total volume of 10 ml/kg. This method may be extrapolatedto the CRISPR Cas system of the present invention.

Other Lipids

Other cationic lipids, such as amino lipid2,2-dilinoleyl-4-dimethylaminoethyl-[1,3]-dioxolane (DLin-KC2-DMA) maybe utilized to encapsulate CRISPR Cas similar to SiRNA (see, e.g.,Jayaraman, Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 2012, 51, 8529-8533). A preformedvesicle with the following lipid composition may be contemplated: aminolipid, distearoylphosphatidylcholine (DSPC), cholesterol and(R)-2,3-bis(octadecyloxy) propyl-1-(methoxy poly(ethyleneglycol)2000)propylcarbamate (PEG-lipid) in the molar ratio 40/10/40/10,respectively, and a FVII siRNA/total lipid ratio of approximately 0.05(w/w). To ensure a narrow particle size distribution in the range of70-90 nm and a low polydispersity index of 0.11_0.04 (n=56), theparticles may be extruded up to three times through 80 nm membranesprior to adding the CRISPR Cas RNA. Particles containing the highlypotent amino lipid 16 may be used, in which the molar ratio of the fourlipid components 16, DSPC, cholesterol and PEG-lipid (50/10/38.5/1.5)which may be further optimized to enhance in vivo activity.

Michael S D Kormann et al. (“Expression of therapeutic proteins afterdelivery of chemically modified mRNA in mice: Nature Biotechnology,Volume:29, Pages: 154-157 (2011) Published online 9 Jan. 2011) describesthe use of lipid envelopes to deliver RNA. Use of lipid envelopes isalso preferred in the present invention.

In another embodiment, lipids may be formulated with the CRISPR Cassystem of the present invention to form lipid nanoparticles (LNPs).Lipids include, but are not limited to, DLin-KC2-DMA4, C12-200 andcolipids disteroylphosphatidyl choline, cholesterol, and PEG-DMG may beformulated with CRISPR Cas instead of siRNA (see, e.g., Novobrantseva,Molecular Therapy—Nucleic Acids (2012) 1, e4; doi:10.1038/mtna.2011.3)using a spontaneous vesicle formation procedure. The component molarratio may be about 50/10/38.5/1.5 (DLin-KC2-DMA orC12-200/disteroylphosphatidyl choline/cholesterol/PEG-DMG). The finallipid:siRNA weight ratio may be ˜12:1 and 9:1 in the case ofDLin-KC2-DMA and C12-200 lipid nanoparticles (LNPs), respectively. Theformulations may have mean particle diameters of ˜80 nm with >90%entrapment efficiency. A 3 mg/kg dose may be contemplated.

Tekmira has a portfolio of approximately 95 patent families, in the U.S.and abroad, that are directed to various aspects of LNPs and LNPformulations (see, e.g., U.S. Pat. Nos. 7,982,027; 7,799,565; 8,058,069;8,283,333; 7,901,708; 7,745,651; 7,803,397; 8,101,741; 8,188,263;7,915,399; 8,236,943 and 7,838,658 and European Pat. Nos 0.1766035;1519714; 1781593 and 1664316), all of which may be used/and or adaptedto the present invention.

The CRISPR Cas system may be delivered encapsulated in PLGA Microspheressuch as that further described in US published applications 20130252281and 20130245107 and 20130244279 (assigned to Moderna Therapeutics) whichrelate to aspects of formulation of compositions comprising modifiednucleic acid molecules which may encode a protein, a protein precursor,or a partially or fully processed form of the protein or a proteinprecursor. The formulation may have a molar ratio 50:10:38.5:1.5-3.0(cationic lipid:fusogenic lipid:cholesterol:PEG lipid). The PEG lipidmay be selected from, but is not limited to PEG-c-DOMG, PEG-DMG. Thefusogenic lipid may be DSPC. See also, Schrum et al., Delivery andFormulation of Engineered Nucleic Acids, US published application20120251618.

Nanomerics' technology addresses bioavailability challenges for a broadrange of therapeutics, including low molecular weight hydrophobic drugs,peptides, and nucleic acid based therapeutics (plasmid, siRNA, miRNA).Specific administration routes for which the technology has demonstratedclear advantages include the oral route, transport across theblood-brain-barrier, delivery to solid tumours, as well as to the eye.See, e.g., Mazza et al., 2013, ACS Nano. 2013 Feb. 26; 7(2):1016-26;Uchegbu and Siew, 2013, J Pharm Sci. 102(2):305-10 and Lalatsa et al.,2012, J Control Release. 2012 Jul. 20; 161(2):523-36.

US Patent Publication No. 20050019923 describes cationic dendrimers fordelivering bioactive molecules, such as polynucleotide molecules,peptides and polypeptides and/or pharmaceutical agents, to a mammalianbody. The dendrimers are suitable for targeting the delivery of thebioactive molecules to, for example, the liver, spleen, lung, kidney orheart. Dendrimers are synthetic 3-dimensional macromolecules that areprepared in a step-wise fashion from simple branched monomer units, thenature and functionality of which can be easily controlled and varied.Dendrimers are synthesised from the repeated addition of building blocksto a multifunctional core (divergent approach to synthesis), or towardsa multifunctional core (convergent approach to synthesis) and eachaddition of a 3-dimensional shell of building blocks leads to theformation of a higher generation of the dendrimers. Polypropyleniminedendrimers start from a diaminobutane core to which is added twice thenumber of amino groups by a double Michael addition of acrylonitrile tothe primary amines followed by the hydrogenation of the nitriles. Thisresults in a doubling of the amino groups. Polypropylenimine dendrimerscontain 100% protonable nitrogens and up to 64 terminal amino groups(generation 5, DAB 64). Protonable groups are usually amine groups whichare able to accept protons at neutral pH. The use of dendrimers as genedelivery agents has largely focused on the use of the polyamidoamine.and phosphorous containing compounds with a mixture of amine/amide orN—P(O₂)S as the conjugating units respectively with no work beingreported on the use of the lower generation polypropylenimine dendrimersfor gene delivery. Polypropylenimine dendrimers have also been studiedas pH sensitive controlled release systems for drug delivery and fortheir encapsulation of guest molecules when chemically modified byperipheral amino acid groups. The cytotoxicity and interaction ofpolypropylenimine dendrimers with DNA as well as the transfectionefficacy of DAB 64 has also been studied.

US Patent Publication No. 20050019923 is based upon the observationthat, contrary to earlier reports, cationic dendrimers, such aspolypropylenimine dendrimers, display suitable properties, such asspecific targeting and low toxicity, for use in the targeted delivery ofbioactive molecules, such as genetic material. In addition, derivativesof the cationic dendrimer also display suitable properties for thetargeted delivery of bioactive molecules. See also, Bioactive Polymers,US published application 20080267903, which discloses “Various polymers,including cationic polyamine polymers and dendrimeric polymers, areshown to possess anti-proliferative activity, and may therefore beuseful for treatment of disorders characterised by undesirable cellularproliferation such as neoplasms and tumours, inflammatory disorders(including autoimmune disorders), psoriasis and atherosclerosis. Thepolymers may be used alone as active agents, or as delivery vehicles forother therapeutic agents, such as drug molecules or nucleic acids forgene therapy. In such cases, the polymers' own intrinsic anti-tumouractivity may complement the activity of the agent to be delivered.”

Supercharged Proteins

Supercharged proteins are a class of engineered or naturally occurringproteins with unusually high positive or negative net theoreticalcharge. Both supernegatively and superpositively charged proteinsexhibit a remarkable ability to withstand thermally or chemicallyinduced aggregation. Superpositively charged proteins are also able topenetrate mammalian cells. Associating cargo with these proteins, suchas plasmid DNA, siRNA, or other proteins, can enable the functionaldelivery of these macromolecules into mammalian cells both in vitro andin vivo. David Liu's lab reported the creation and characterization ofsupercharged proteins in 2007 (Lawrence et al., 2007, Journal of theAmerican Chemical Society 129, 10110-10112).

The nonviral delivery of siRNA and plasmid DNA into mammalian cells arevaluable both for research and therapeutic applications (Akinc et al.,2010, Nat. Biotech. 26, 561-569). Purified+36 GFP protein (or othersuperpositively charged protein) is mixed with siRNAs in the appropriateserum-free media and allowed to complex prior addition to cells.Inclusion of serum at this stage inhibits formation of the superchargedprotein-siRNA complexes and reduces the effectiveness of the treatment.The following protocol has been found to be effective for a variety ofcell lines (McNaughton et al., 2009, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 106,6111-6116). However, pilot experiments varying the dose of protein andsiRNA should be performed to optimize the procedure for specific celllines.

(1) One day before treatment, plate 1×10⁵ cells per well in a 48-wellplate.

(2) On the day of treatment, dilute purified +36 GFP protein inserumfree media to a final concentration 200 nM. Add siRNA to a finalconcentration of 50 nM. Vortex to mix and incubate at room temperaturefor 10 min.

(3) During incubation, aspirate media from cells and wash once with PBS.

(4) Following incubation of +36 GFP and siRNA, add the protein-siRNAcomplexes to cells.

(5) Incubate cells with complexes at 37 C for 4 h.

(6) Following incubation, aspirate the media and wash three times with20 U/mL heparin PBS. Incubate cells with serum-containing media for afurther 48 h or longer depending upon the assay for knockdown.

(7) Analyze cells by immunoblot, qPCR, phenotypic assay, or otherappropriate method.

It has been found that +36 GFP is an effective plasmid delivery reagentin a range of cells. As plasmid DNA is a larger cargo than siRNA,proportionately more +36 GFP protein is required to effectively complexplasmids. For effective plasmid delivery Applicants have developed avariant of +36 GFP bearing a C-terminal HA2 peptide tag, a knownendosome-disrupting peptide derived from the influenza virushemagglutinin protein. The following protocol has been effective in avariety of cells, but as above it is advised that plasmid DNA andsupercharged protein doses be optimized for specific cell lines anddelivery applications.

(1) One day before treatment, plate 1×10⁵ per well in a 48-well plate.

(2) On the day of treatment, dilute purified

36 GFP protein in serumfree media to a final concentration 2 mM. Add 1mg of plasmid DNA. Vortex to mix and incubate at room temperature for 10min.

(3) During incubation, aspirate media from cells and wash once with PBS.

(4) Following incubation of

36 GFP and plasmid DNA, gently add the protein-DNA complexes to cells.

(5) Incubate cells with complexes at 37 C for 4 h.

(6) Following incubation, aspirate the media and wash with PBS. Incubatecells in serum-containing media and incubate for a further 24-48 h.

(7) Analyze plasmid delivery (e.g., by plasmid-driven gene expression)as appropriate.

See also, e.g., McNaughton et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 106,6111-6116 (2009); Cronican et al., ACS Chemical Biology 5, 747-752(2010); Cronican et al., Chemistry & Biology 18, 833-838 (2011);Thompson et al., Methods in Enzymology 503, 293-319 (2012); Thompson, D.B., et al., Chemistry & Biology 19 (7), 831-843 (2012). The methods ofthe super charged proteins may be used and/or adapted for delivery ofthe CRISPR Cas system of the present invention.

Cell Penetrating Peptides

In yet another embodiment, cell penetrating peptides (CPPs) arecontemplated for the delivery of the CRISPR Cas system. CPPs are shortpeptides that facilitate cellular uptake of various molecular cargo(from nanosize particles to small chemical molecules and large fragmentsof DNA). The term “cargo” as used herein includes but is not limited tothe group consisting of therapeutic agents, diagnostic probes, peptides,nucleic acids, antisense oligonucleotides, plasmids, proteins,nanoparticles, liposomes, chromophores, small molecules and radioactivematerials. In aspects of the invention, the cargo may also comprise anycomponent of the CRISPR Cas system or the entire functional CRISPR Cassystem. Aspects of the present invention further provide methods fordelivering a desired cargo into a subject comprising: (a) preparing acomplex comprising the cell penetrating peptide of the present inventionand a desired cargo, and (b) orally, intraarticularly,intraperitoneally, intrathecally, intrarterially, intranasally,intraparenchymally, subcutaneously, intramuscularly, intravenously,dermally, intrarectally, or topically administering the complex to asubject. The cargo is associated with the peptides either throughchemical linkage via covalent bonds or through non-covalentinteractions.

The function of the CPPs are to deliver the cargo into cells, a processthat commonly occurs through endocytosis with the cargo delivered to theendosomes of living mammalian cells. Cell-penetrating peptides are ofdifferent sizes, amino acid sequences, and charges but all CPPs have onedistinct characteristic, which is the ability to translocate the plasmamembrane and facilitate the delivery of various molecular cargoes to thecytoplasm or an organelle. CPP translocation may be classified intothree main entry mechanisms: direct penetration in the membrane,endocytosis-mediated entry, and translocation through the formation of atransitory structure. CPPs have found numerous applications in medicineas drug delivery agents in the treatment of different diseases includingcancer and virus inhibitors, as well as contrast agents for celllabeling. Examples of the latter include acting as a carrier for GFP,Mill contrast agents, or quantum dots. CPPs hold great potential as invitro and in vivo delivery vectors for use in research and medicine.CPPs typically have an amino acid composition that either contains ahigh relative abundance of positively charged amino acids such as lysineor arginine or has sequences that contain an alternating pattern ofpolar/charged amino acids and non-polar, hydrophobic amino acids. Thesetwo types of structures are referred to as polycationic or amphipathic,respectively. A third class of CPPs are the hydrophobic peptides,containing only apolar residues, with low net charge or have hydrophobicamino acid groups that are crucial for cellular uptake. One of theinitial CPPs discovered was the trans-activating transcriptionalactivator (Tat) from Human Immunodeficiency Virus 1 (HIV-1) which wasfound to be efficiently taken up from the surrounding media by numerouscell types in culture. Since then, the number of known CPPs has expandedconsiderably and small molecule synthetic analogues with more effectiveprotein transduction properties have been generated. CPPs include butare not limited to Penetratin, Tat (48-60), Transportan, and (R-AhX-R4)(Ahx=aminohexanoyl) (SEQ ID NO: 926).

As described in U.S. Pat. No. 8,372,951, there is provided a CPP derivedfrom eosinophil cationic protein (ECP) which exhibits highlycell-penetrating efficiency and low toxicity. Aspects of delivering theCPP with its cargo into a vertebrate subject are also provided. Furtheraspects of CPPs and their delivery are described in U.S. Pat. Nos.8,575,305; 8,614,194 and 8,044,019.

That CPPs can be employed to deliver the CRISPR-Cas system is alsoprovided in the manuscript “Gene disruption by cell-penetratingpeptide-mediated delivery of Cas9 protein and guide RNA”, by SureshRamakrishna, Abu-Bonsrah Kwaku Dad, Jagadish Beloor, et al. Genome Res.2014 Apr. 2. [Epub ahead of print], incorporated by reference in itsentirety, wherein it is demonstrated that treatment with CPP-conjugatedrecombinant Cas9 protein and CPP-complexed guide RNAs lead to endogenousgene disruptions in human cell lines. In the paper the Cas9 protein wasconjugated to CPP via a thioether bond, whereas the guide RNA wascomplexed with CPP, forming condensed, positively charged nanoparticles.It was shown that simultaneous and sequential treatment of human cells,including embryonic stem cells, dermal fibroblasts, HEK293T cells, HeLacells, and embryonic carcinoma cells, with the modified Cas9 and guideRNA led to efficient gene disruptions with reduced off-target mutationsrelative to plasmid transfections.

Implantable Devices

In another embodiment, implantable devices are also contemplated fordelivery of the CRISPR Cas system. For example, US Patent Publication20110195123 discloses an implantable medical device which elutes a druglocally and in prolonged period is provided, including several types ofsuch a device, the treatment modes of implementation and methods ofimplantation. The device comprising of polymeric substrate, such as amatrix for example, that is used as the device body, and drugs, and insome cases additional scaffolding materials, such as metals oradditional polymers, and materials to enhance visibility and imaging.The selection of drug is based on the advantageous of releasing druglocally and in prolonged period, where drug is released directly to theextracellular matrix (ECM) of the diseased area such as tumor,inflammation, degeneration or for symptomatic objectives, or to injuredsmooth muscle cells, or for prevention. One kind of drug is the genesilencing drugs based on RNA interference (RNAi), including but notlimited to si RNA, sh RNA, or antisense RNA/DNA, ribozyme and nucleosideanalogs. Therefore, this system may be used/and or adapted to the CRISPRCas system of the present invention. The modes of implantation in someembodiments are existing implantation procedures that are developed andused today for other treatments, including brachytherapy and needlebiopsy. In such cases the dimensions of the new implant described inthis invention are similar to the original implant. Typically a fewdevices are implanted during the same treatment procedure.

As described in US Patent Publication 20110195123, there is provided adrug delivery implantable or insertable system, including systemsapplicable to a cavity such as the abdominal cavity and/or any othertype of administration in which the drug delivery system is not anchoredor attached, comprising a biostable and/or degradable and/orbioabsorbable polymeric substrate, which may for example optionally be amatrix. It should be noted that the term “insertion” also includesimplantation. The drug delivery system is preferably implemented as a“Loder” as described in US Patent Publication 20110195123.

The polymer or plurality of polymers are biocompatible, incorporating anagent and/or plurality of agents, enabling the release of agent at acontrolled rate, wherein the total volume of the polymeric substrate,such as a matrix for example, in some embodiments is optionally andpreferably no greater than a maximum volume that permits a therapeuticlevel of the agent to be reached. As a non-limiting example, such avolume is preferably within the range of 0.1 m³ to 1000 mm³, as requiredby the volume for the agent load. The Loder may optionally be larger,for example when incorporated with a device whose size is determined byfunctionality, for example and without limitation, a knee joint, anintra-uterine or cervical ring and the like.

The drug delivery system (for delivering the composition) is designed insome embodiments to preferably employ degradable polymers, wherein themain release mechanism is bulk erosion; or in some embodiments, nondegradable, or slowly degraded polymers are used, wherein the mainrelease mechanism is diffusion rather than bulk erosion, so that theouter part functions as membrane, and its internal part functions as adrug reservoir, which practically is not affected by the surroundingsfor an extended period (for example from about a week to about a fewmonths). Combinations of different polymers with different releasemechanisms may also optionally be used. The concentration gradient atthe surface is preferably maintained effectively constant during asignificant period of the total drug releasing period, and therefore thediffusion rate is effectively constant (termed “zero mode” diffusion).By the term “constant” it is meant a diffusion rate that is preferablymaintained above the lower threshold of therapeutic effectiveness, butwhich may still optionally feature an initial burst and/or fluctuate,for example increasing and decreasing to a certain degree. The diffusionrate is preferably so maintained for a prolonged period, and it can beconsidered constant to a certain level to optimize the therapeuticallyeffective period, for example the effective silencing period.

The drug delivery system optionally and preferably is designed to shieldthe nucleotide based therapeutic agent from degradation, whetherchemical in nature or due to attack from enzymes and other factors inthe body of the subject.

The drug delivery system as described in US Patent Publication20110195123 is optionally associated with sensing and/or activationappliances that are operated at and/or after implantation of the device,by non and/or minimally invasive methods of activation and/oracceleration/deceleration, for example optionally including but notlimited to thermal heating and cooling, laser beams, and ultrasonic,including focused ultrasound and/or RF (radiofrequency) methods ordevices.

According to some embodiments of US Patent Publication 20110195123, thesite for local delivery may optionally include target sitescharacterized by high abnormal proliferation of cells, and suppressedapoptosis, including tumors, active and or chronic inflammation andinfection including autoimmune diseases states, degenerating tissueincluding muscle and nervous tissue, chronic pain, degenerative sites,and location of bone fractures and other wound locations for enhancementof regeneration of tissue, and injured cardiac, smooth and striatedmuscle. The site for local delivery also may optionally include sitesenabling performing preventive activities including pregnancy,prevention of infection and aging.

The site for implantation of the composition, or target site, preferablyfeatures a radius, area and/or volume that is sufficiently small fortargeted local delivery. For example, the target site optionally has adiameter in a range of from about 0.1 mm to about 5 cm.

The location of the target site is preferably selected for maximumtherapeutic efficacy. For example, the composition of the drug deliverysystem (optionally with a device for implantation as described above) isoptionally and preferably implanted within or in the proximity of atumor environment, or the blood supply associated thereof.

For example the composition (optionally with the device) is optionallyimplanted within or in the proximity to pancreas, prostate, breast,liver, via the nipple, within the vascular system and so forth.

The target location is optionally selected from the group consisting of(as non-limiting examples only, as optionally any site within the bodymay be suitable for implanting a Loder): 1. brain at degenerative siteslike in Parkinson or Alzheimer disease at the basal ganglia, white andgray matter; 2. spine as in the case of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis(ALS); 3. uterine cervix to prevent HPV infection; 4. active and chronicinflammatory joints; 5. dermis as in the case of psoriasis; 6.sympathetic and sensoric nervous sites for analgesic effect; 7. Intraosseous implantation; 8. acute and chronic infection sites; 9. Intravaginal; 10. Inner ear-auditory system, labyrinth of the inner ear,vestibular system; 11. Intra tracheal; 12. Intra-cardiac; coronary,epicardiac; 13. urinary bladder; 14. biliary system; 15. parenchymaltissue including and not limited to the kidney, liver, spleen; 16. lymphnodes; 17. salivary glands; 18. dental gums; 19. Intra-articular (intojoints); 20. Intra-ocular; 21. Brain tissue; 22. Brain ventricles; 23.Cavities, including abdominal cavity (for example but withoutlimitation, for ovary cancer); 24. Intra esophageal and 25. Intrarectal.

Optionally insertion of the system (for example a device containing thecomposition) is associated with injection of material to the ECM at thetarget site and the vicinity of that site to affect local pH and/ortemperature and/or other biological factors affecting the diffusion ofthe drug and/or drug kinetics in the ECM, of the target site and thevicinity of such a site.

Optionally, according to some embodiments, the release of said agentcould be associated with sensing and/or activation appliances that areoperated prior and/or at and/or after insertion, by non and/or minimallyinvasive and/or else methods of activation and/oracceleration/deceleration, including laser beam, radiation, thermalheating and cooling, and ultrasonic, including focused ultrasound and/orRF (radiofrequency) methods or devices, and chemical activators.

According to other embodiments of US Patent Publication 20110195123, thedrug preferably comprises a gene silencing biological RNAi drug, forexample for localized cancer cases in breast, pancreas, brain, kidney,bladder, lung, and prostate as described below. Moreover, many drugsother than siRNA are applicable to be encapsulated in Loder, and can beused in association with this invention, as long as such drugs can beencapsulated with the Loder substrate, such as a matrix for example.Such drugs include approved drugs that are delivered today by methodsother than of this invention, including Amphotericin B for fungalinfection; antibiotics such as in osteomyelitis; pain killers such asnarcotics; anti degenerative such as in Alzheimer or Parkinson diseasesin a Loder implanted in the vicinity of the spine in the case of backpain. Such a system may be used and/or adapted to deliver the CRISPR Cassystem of the present invention.

For example, for specific applications such as prevention of growth orregrowth of smooth muscle cells (that are injured during a stentingprocedure and as a result tend to proliferate), the drug may optionallybe siRNA that silence smooth muscle cells, including H19 silencing, or adrug selected from the group consisting of taxol, rapamycin andrapamycin-analogs. In such cases the Loder is preferably either a DrugEluting Stent (DES), with prolonged release at constant rate, or adedicated device that is implanted separately, in association to thestent. All of this may be used/and or adapted to the CRISPR Cas systemof the present invention.

As another example of a specific application, neuro and musculardegenerative diseases develop due to abnormal gene expression. Localdelivery of silencing RNAs may have therapeutic properties forinterfering with such abnormal gene expression. Local delivery of antiapoptotic, anti inflammatory and anti degenerative drugs including smalldrugs and macromolecules may also optionally be therapeutic. In suchcases the Loder is applied for prolonged release at constant rate and/orthrough a dedicated device that is implanted separately. All of this maybe used and/or adapted to the CRISPR Cas system of the presentinvention.

As yet another example of a specific application, psychiatric andcognitive disorders are treated with gene modifiers. Gene knockdown withsilencing RNA is a treatment option. Loders locally deliveringnucleotide based agents to central nervous system sites are therapeuticoptions for psychiatric and cognitive disorders including but notlimited to psychosis, bi-polar diseases, neurotic disorders andbehavioral maladies. The Loders could also deliver locally drugsincluding small drugs and macromolecules upon implantation at specificbrain sites. All of this may be used and/or adapted to the CRISPR Cassystem of the present invention.

As another example of a specific application, silencing of innate and/oradaptive immune mediators at local sites enables the prevention of organtransplant rejection. Local delivery of silencing RNAs andimmunomodulating reagents with the Loder implanted into the transplantedorgan and/or the implanted site renders local immune suppression byrepelling immune cells such as CD8 activated against the transplantedorgan. All of this may be used/and or adapted to the CRISPR Cas systemof the present invention.

As another example of a specific application, vascular growth factorsincluding VEGFs and angiogenin and others are essential forneovascularization. Local delivery of the factors, peptides,peptidomimetics, or suppressing their repressors is an importanttherapeutic modality; silencing the repressors and local delivery of thefactors, peptides, macromolecules and small drugs stimulatingangiogenesis with the Loder is therapeutic for peripheral, systemic andcardiac vascular disease.

The method of insertion, such as implantation, may optionally already beused for other types of tissue implantation and/or for insertions and/orfor sampling tissues, optionally without modifications, or alternativelyoptionally only with non-major modifications in such methods. Suchmethods optionally include but are not limited to brachytherapy methods,biopsy, endoscopy with and/or without ultrasound, such as ERCP,stereotactic methods into the brain tissue, Laparoscopy, includingimplantation with a laparoscope into joints, abdominal organs, thebladder wall and body cavities.

CRISPR Enzyme mRNA and Guide RNA

CRISPR enzyme mRNA and guide RNA might also be delivered separately.CRISPR enzyme mRNA can be delivered prior to the guide RNA to give timefor CRISPR enzyme to be expressed. CRISPR enzyme mRNA might beadministered 1-12 hours (preferably around 2-6 hours) prior to theadministration of guide RNA.

Alternatively, CRISPR enzyme mRNA and guide RNA can be administeredtogether. Advantageously, a second booster dose of guide RNA can beadministered 1-12 hours (preferably around 2-6 hours) after the initialadministration of CRISPR enzyme mRNA+ guide RNA.

Additional administrations of CRISPR enzyme mRNA and/or guide RNA mightbe useful to achieve the most efficient levels of genome modification.

For minimization of toxicity and off-target effect, it will be importantto control the concentration of CRISPR enzyme mRNA and guide RNAdelivered. Optimal concentrations of CRISPR enzyme mRNA and guide RNAcan be determined by testing different concentrations in a cellular oranimal model and using deep sequencing the analyze the extent ofmodification at potential off-target genomic loci. For example, for theguide sequence targeting 5′-GAGTCCGAGCAGAAGAAGAA-3′ (SEQ ID NO: 5) inthe EMX1 gene of the human genome, deep sequencing can be used to assessthe level of modification at the following two off-target loci, 1:5′-GAGTCCTAGCAGGAGAAGAA-3′ (SEQ ID NO: 6) and 2:5′-GAGTCTAAGCAGAAGAAGAA-3′ (SEQ ID NO: 7). The concentration that givesthe highest level of on-target modification while minimizing the levelof off-target modification should be chosen for in vivo delivery.

Alternatively, to minimize the level of toxicity and off-target effect,CRISPR enzyme nickase mRNA (for example S. pyogenes Cas9 with the D10Amutation) can be delivered with a pair of guide RNAs targeting a site ofinterest. The two guide RNAs need to be spaced as follows. Guidesequences in red (single underline) and blue (double underline)respectively (these examples are based on the PAM requirement forStreptococcus pyogenes Cas9).

Further interrogation of the system have given Applicants evidence ofthe 5′ overhang (see, e.g., Ran et al., Cell. 2013 Sep. 12;154(6):1380-9 and U.S. Provisional Patent Application Ser. No.61/871,301 filed Aug. 28, 2013). Applicants have further identifiedparameters that relate to efficient cleavage by the Cas9 nickase mutantwhen combined with two guide RNAs and these parameters include but arenot limited to the length of the 5′ overhang. In embodiments of theinvention the 5′ overhang is at most 200 base pairs, preferably at most100 base pairs, or more preferably at most 50 base pairs. In embodimentsof the invention the 5′ overhang is at least 26 base pairs, preferablyat least 30 base pairs or more preferably 34-50 base pairs or 1-34 basepairs. In other preferred methods of the invention the first guidesequence directing cleavage of one strand of the DNA duplex near thefirst target sequence and the second guide sequence directing cleavageof other strand near the second target sequence results in a blunt cutor a 3′ overhang. In embodiments of the invention the 3′ overhang is atmost 150, 100 or 25 base pairs or at least 15, 10 or 1 base pairs. Inpreferred embodiments the 3′ overhang is 1-100 basepairs.

Aspects of the invention relate to the expression of the gene productbeing decreased or a template polynucleotide being further introducedinto the DNA molecule encoding the gene product or an interveningsequence being excised precisely by allowing the two 5′ overhangs toreanneal and ligate or the activity or function of the gene productbeing altered or the expression of the gene product being increased. Inan embodiment of the invention, the gene product is a protein.

Only sgRNA pairs creating 5′ overhangs with less than 8 bp overlapbetween the guide sequences (offset greater than −8 bp) were able tomediate detectable indel formation. Importantly, each guide used inthese assays is able to efficiently induce indels when paired withwildtype Cas9, indicating that the relative positions of the guide pairsare the most important parameters in predicting double nicking activity.

Since Cas9n and Cas9H840A nick opposite strands of DNA, substitution ofCas9n with Cas9H840A with a given sgRNA pair should result in theinversion of the overhang type. For example, a pair of sgRNAs that willgenerate a 5′ overhang with Cas9n should in principle generate thecorresponding 3′ overhang instead. Therefore, sgRNA pairs that lead tothe generation of a 3′ overhang with Cas9n might be used with Cas9H840Ato generate a 5′ overhang. Unexpectedly, Applicants tested Cas9H840Awith a set of sgRNA pairs designed to generate both 5′ and 3′ overhangs(offset range from −278 to +58 bp), but were unable to observe indelformation. Further work may be needed to identify the necessary designrules for sgRNA pairing to allow double nicking by Cas9H840A.

Liver, Proprotein Convertase Subtilisin Kexin 9 (PCSK9)

The data shows phenotypic conversion.

Proprotein convertase subtilisin kexin 9 (PCSK9) is a member of thesubtilisin serine protease family. PCSK9 is primarily expressed by theliver and is critical for the down regulation of hepatocyte LDL receptorexpression. LDL-C levels in plasma are highly elevated in humans withgain of function mutations in PCSK9, classifying them as having severehypercholesterolemia. Therefore, PCSK9 is an attractive target forCRISPR. PCS9K-targeted CRISPR may be formulated in a lipid particle andfor example administered at about 15, 45, 90, 150, 250 and 400 μg/kgintraveneously (see, e.g., available at the website:www.alnylam.com/capella/wp-content/uploads/2013/08/ALN-PC502-001-Protocol-Lancet.pdf).

Bailey et al. (J Mol Med (Berl). 1999 January; 77(1):244-9) disclosesinsulin delivery by ex-vivo somatic cell gene therapy involves theremoval of non-B-cell somatic cells (e.g. fibroblasts) from a diabeticpatient, and genetically altering them in vitro to produce and secreteinsulin. The cells can be grown in culture and returned to the donor asa source of insulin replacement. Cells modified in this way could beevaluated before implantation, and reserve stocks could becryopreserved. By using the patient's own cells, the procedure shouldobviate the need for immunosuppression and overcome the problem oftissue supply, while avoiding a recurrence of cell destruction. Ex-vivosomatic cell gene therapy requires an accessible and robust cell typethat is amenable to multiple transfections and subject to controlledproliferation. Special problems associated with the use of non-B-cellsomatic cells include the processing of proinsulin to insulin, and theconferment of sensitivity to glucose-stimulated proinsulin biosynthesisand regulated insulin release. Preliminary studies using fibroblasts,pituitary cells, kidney (COS) cells and ovarian (CHO) cells suggest thatthese challenges could be met, and that ex-vivo somatic cell genetherapy offers a feasible approach to insulin replacement therapy. Thesystem of Bailey et al. may be used/and or adapted to the CRISPR Cassystem of the present invention for delivery to the liver.

The methods of Sato et al. (Nature Biotechnology Volume 26 Number 4 Apr.2008, Pages 431-442) may be applied to the CRISPR Cas system of thepresent invention for delivery to the liver. Sato et al. found thattreatments with the siRNA-bearing vitamin A-coupled liposomes almostcompletely resolved liver fibrosis and prolonged survival in rats withotherwise lethal dimethylnitrosamine-induced liver cirrhosis in a dose-and duration-dependent manner. Cationic liposomes (Lipotrust) containingO,O′-ditetradecanoyl-N-(a-trimethylammonioacetyl) diethanolaminechloride (DC-6-14) as a cationic lipid, cholesterol anddioleoylphosphatidylethanolamine at a molar ratio of 4:3:3 (which hasshown high transfection efficiency under serumcontaining conditions forin vitro and in vivo gene delivery) were purchased from Hokkaido SystemScience. The liposomes were manufactured using a freeze-dried emptyliposomes method and prepared at a concentration of 1 mM (DC-16-4) byaddition of double-distilled water (DDW) to the lyophilized lipidmixture under vortexing before use. To prepare VA-coupled liposomes, 200nmol of vitamin A (retinol, Sigma) dissolved in DMSO was mixed with theliposome suspensions (100 nmol as DC-16-4) by vortexing in a 1.5 ml tubeat 25 1 C. To prepare VA-coupled liposomes carrying siRNAgp46(VA-lip-siRNAgp46), a solution of siRNAgp46 (580 pmol/ml in DDW) wasadded to the retinol-coupled liposome solution with stirring at 25 C.The ratio of siRNA to DC-16-4 was 1:11.5 (mol/mol) and the siRNA toliposome ratio (wt/wt) was 1:1. Any free vitamin A or siRNA that was nottaken up by liposomes were separated from liposomal preparations using amicropartition system (VIVASPIN 2 concentrator 30,000 MWCO PES,VIVASCIENCE). The liposomal suspension was added to the filters andcentrifuged at 1,500 g for 5 min 3 times at 25 1 C. Fractions werecollected and the material trapped in the filter was reconstituted withPBS to achieve the desired dose for in vitro or in vivo use. Threeinjections of 0.75 mg/kg siRNA were given every other day to rats. Thesystem of Sato et al. may be used/and or adapted to the CRISPR Cassystem of the present invention for delivery to the liver by deliveringabout 0.5 to 1 mg/kg of CRISPR Cas RNA in the liposomes as described bySato et al. to humans.

The methods of Rozema et al. (PNAS, Aug. 7, 2007, vol. 104, no. 32) fora vehicle for the delivery of siRNA to hepatocytes both in vitro and invivo, which Rozema et al. have named siRNA Dynamic PolyConjugates mayalso be applied to the present invention. Key features of the DynamicPoly-Conjugate technology include a membrane-active polymer, the abilityto reversibly mask the activity of this polymer until it reaches theacidic environment of endosomes, and the ability to target this modifiedpolymer and its siRNA cargo specifically to hepatocytes in vivo aftersimple, low-pressure i.v. injection. SATA-modified siRNAs aresynthesized by reaction of 5′ aminemodified siRNA with 1 weightequivalents (wt eq) of Nsuccinimidyl-S-acetylthioacetate (SATA) reagent(Pierce) and 0.36 wt eq of NaHCO₃ in water at 4° C. for 16 h. Themodified siRNAs are then precipitated by the addition of 9 vol ofethanol and incubation at 80° C. for 2 h. The precipitate is resuspendedin 1×siRNA buffer (Dharmacon) and quantified by measuring absorbance atthe 260-nm wavelength. PBAVE (30 mg/ml in 5 mMTAPS, pH 9) is modified byaddition of 1.5 wt % SMPT (Pierce). After a 1-h incubation, 0.8 mg ofSMPT-PBAVE was added to 400 μl of isotonic glucose solution containing 5mM TAPS (pH 9). To this solution was added 50 μg of SATA-modified siRNA.For the dose-response experiments where [PBAVE] was constant, differentamounts of siRNA are added. The mixture is then incubated for 16 h. Tothe solution is then added 5.6 mg of Hepes free base followed by amixture of 3.7 mg of CDM-NAG and 1.9 mg of CDM-PEG. The solution is thenincubated for at least 1 h at room temperature before injection. CDM-PEGand CDM-NAG are synthesized from the acid chloride generated by usingoxalyl chloride. To the acid chloride is added 1.1 molar equivalentspolyethylene glycol monomethyl ether (molecular weight average of 450)to generate CDM-PEG or(aminoethoxy)ethoxy-2-(acetylamino)-2-deoxy-β-D-glucopyranoside togenerate CDM-NAG. The final product is purified by using reverse-phaseHPLC with a 0.1% TFA water/acetonitrile gradient. About 25 to 50 μg ofsiRNA was delivered to mice. The system of Rozema et al. may be appliedto the CRISPR Cas system of the present invention for delivery to theliver, for example by envisioning a dosage of about 50 to about 200 mgof CRISPR Cas for delivery to a human.

Targeted deletion, therapeutic applications

Targeted deletion of genes is preferred. Examples are exemplified inExample 18. Preferred are, therefore, genes involved in cholesterolbiosynthesis, fatty acid biosynthesis, and other metabolic disorders,genes encoding mis-folded proteins involved in amyloid and otherdiseases, oncogenes leading to cellular transformation, latent viralgenes, and genes leading to dominant-negative disorders, amongst otherdisorders. As exemplified here, Applicants prefer gene delivery of aCRISPR-Cas system to the liver, brain, ocular, epithelial, hematopoetic,or another tissue of a subject or a patient in need thereof, sufferingfrom metabolic disorders, amyloidosis and protein-aggregation relateddiseases, cellular transformation arising from genetic mutations andtranslocations, dominant negative effects of gene mutations, latentviral infections, and other related symptoms, using either viral ornanoparticle delivery system.

Therapeutic applications of the CRISPR-Cas system include Glaucoma,Amyloidosis, and Huntington's disease. These are exemplified in Example20 and the features described therein are preferred alone or incombination.

Another example of a polyglutamine expansion disease that may be treatedby the present invention includes spinocerebellar ataxia type 1 (SCA1).Upon intracerebellar injection, recombinant adenoassociated virus (AAV)vectors expressing short hairpin RNAs profoundly improve motorcoordination, restored cerebellar morphology and resolved characteristicataxin-1 inclusions in Purkinje cells of SCA1 mice (see, e.g., Xia etal., Nature Medicine, Vol. 10, No. 8, August 2004). In particular, AAV1and AAV5 vectors are preferred and AAV titers of about 1×10¹² vectorgenomes/ml are desirable.

As an example, chronic infection by HIV-1 may be treated or prevented.In order to accomplish this, one may generate CRISPR-Cas guide RNAs thattarget the vast majority of the HIV-1 genome while taking into accountHIV-1 strain variants for maximal coverage and effectiveness. One mayaccomplish delivery of the CRISPR-Cas system by conventional adenoviralor lentiviral-mediated infection of the host immune system. Depending onapproach, host immune cells could be a) isolated, transduced withCRISPR-Cas, selected, and re-introduced in to the host or b) transducedin vivo by systemic delivery of the CRISPR-Cas system. The firstapproach allows for generation of a resistant immune population whereasthe second is more likely to target latent viral reservoirs within thehost. This is discussed in more detail in the Examples section.

In another example, US Patent Publication No. 20130171732 assigned toSangamo BioSciences, Inc. relates to insertion of an anti-HIV transgeneinto the genome, methods of which may be applied to the CRISPR Cassystem of the present invention. In another embodiment, the CXCR4 genemay be targeted and the TALE system of US Patent Publication No.20100291048 assigned to Sangamo BioSciences, Inc. may be modified to theCRISPR Cas system of the present invention. The method of US PatentPublication Nos. 20130137104 and 20130122591 assigned to SangamoBioSciences, Inc. and US Patent Publication No. 20100146651 assigned toCellectis may be more generally applicable for transgene expression asit involves modifying a hypoxanthine-guanine phosphoribosyltransferase(HPRT) locus for increasing the frequency of gene modification.

It is also envisaged that the present invention generates a geneknockout cell library. Each cell may have a single gene knocked out.This is exemplified in Example 23.

One may make a library of ES cells where each cell has a single geneknocked out, and the entire library of ES cells will have every singlegene knocked out. This library is useful for the screening of genefunction in cellular processes as well as diseases. To make this celllibrary, one may integrate Cas9 driven by an inducible promoter (e.g.doxycycline inducible promoter) into the ES cell. In addition, one mayintegrate a single guide RNA targeting a specific gene in the ES cell.To make the ES cell library, one may simply mix ES cells with a libraryof genes encoding guide RNAs targeting each gene in the human genome.One may first introduce a single BxB1 attB site into the AAVS1 locus ofthe human ES cell. Then one may use the BxB1 integrase to facilitate theintegration of individual guide RNA genes into the BxB1 attB site inAAVS1 locus. To facilitate integration, each guide RNA gene may becontained on a plasmid that carries of a single attP site. This way BxB1will recombine the attB site in the genome with the attP site on theguide RNA containing plasmid. To generate the cell library, one may takethe library of cells that have single guide RNAs integrated and induceCas9 expression. After induction, Cas9 mediates double strand break atsites specified by the guide RNA.

Chronic administration of protein therapeutics may elicit unacceptableimmune responses to the specific protein. The immunogenicity of proteindrugs can be ascribed to a few immunodominant helper T lymphocyte (HTL)epitopes. Reducing the MHC binding affinity of these HTL epitopescontained within these proteins can generate drugs with lowerimmunogenicity (Tangri S, et al. (“Rationally engineered therapeuticproteins with reduced immunogenicity” J Immunol. 2005 Mar. 15;174(6):3187-96.) In the present invention, the immunogenicity of theCRISPR enzyme in particular may be reduced following the approach firstset out in Tangri et al with respect to erythropoietin and subsequentlydeveloped. Accordingly, directed evolution or rational design may beused to reduce the immunogenicity of the CRISPR enzyme (for instance aCas9) in the host species (human or other species).

In Example 28, Applicants used 3 guideRNAs of interest and able tovisualize efficient DNA cleavage in vivo occurring only in a smallsubset of cells. Essentially, what Applicants have shown here istargeted in vivo cleavage. In particular, this provides proof of conceptthat specific targeting in higher organisms such as mammals can also beachieved. It also highlights multiplex aspect in that multiple guidesequences (i.e. separate targets) can be used simultaneously (in thesense of co-delivery). In other words, Applicants used a multipleapproach, with several different sequences targeted at the same time,but independently.

A suitable example of a protocol for producing AAV, a preferred vectorof the invention is provided in Example 34.

Trinucleotide repeat disorders are preferred conditions to be treated.These are also exemplified herein.

For example, US Patent Publication No. 20110016540, describes use ofzinc finger nucleases to genetically modify cells, animals and proteinsassociated with trinucleotide repeat expansion disorders. Trinucleotiderepeat expansion disorders are complex, progressive disorders thatinvolve developmental neurobiology and often affect cognition as well assensori-motor functions.

Trinucleotide repeat expansion proteins are a diverse set of proteinsassociated with susceptibility for developing a trinucleotide repeatexpansion disorder, the presence of a trinucleotide repeat expansiondisorder, the severity of a trinucleotide repeat expansion disorder orany combination thereof. Trinucleotide repeat expansion disorders aredivided into two categories determined by the type of repeat. The mostcommon repeat is the triplet CAG, which, when present in the codingregion of a gene, codes for the amino acid glutamine (Q). Therefore,these disorders are referred to as the polyglutamine (polyQ) disordersand comprise the following diseases: Huntington Disease (HD);Spinobulbar Muscular Atrophy (SBMA); Spinocerebellar Ataxias (SCA types1, 2, 3, 6, 7, and 17); and Dentatorubro-Pallidoluysian Atrophy (DRPLA).The remaining trinucleotide repeat expansion disorders either do notinvolve the CAG triplet or the CAG triplet is not in the coding regionof the gene and are, therefore, referred to as the non-polyglutaminedisorders. The non-polyglutamine disorders comprise Fragile X Syndrome(FRAXA); Fragile XE Mental Retardation (FRAXE); Friedreich Ataxia(FRDA); Myotonic Dystrophy (DM); and Spinocerebellar Ataxias (SCA types8, and 12).

The proteins associated with trinucleotide repeat expansion disordersare typically selected based on an experimental association of theprotein associated with a trinucleotide repeat expansion disorder to atrinucleotide repeat expansion disorder. For example, the productionrate or circulating concentration of a protein associated with atrinucleotide repeat expansion disorder may be elevated or depressed ina population having a trinucleotide repeat expansion disorder relativeto a population lacking the trinucleotide repeat expansion disorder.Differences in protein levels may be assessed using proteomic techniquesincluding but not limited to Western blot, immunohistochemical staining,enzyme linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), and mass spectrometry.Alternatively, the proteins associated with trinucleotide repeatexpansion disorders may be identified by obtaining gene expressionprofiles of the genes encoding the proteins using genomic techniquesincluding but not limited to DNA microarray analysis, serial analysis ofgene expression (SAGE), and quantitative real-time polymerase chainreaction (Q-PCR).

Non-limiting examples of proteins associated with trinucleotide repeatexpansion disorders include AR (androgen receptor), FMR1 (fragile Xmental retardation 1), HTT (huntingtin), DMPK (dystrophiamyotonica-protein kinase), FXN (frataxin), ATXN2 (ataxin 2), ATN1(atrophin 1), FEN1 (flap structure-specific endonuclease 1), TNRC6A(trinucleotide repeat containing 6A), PABPN1 (poly(A) binding protein,nuclear 1), JPH3 (junctophilin 3), MED15 (mediator complex subunit 15),ATXN1 (ataxin 1), ATXN3 (ataxin 3), TBP (TATA box binding protein),CACNA1A (calcium channel, voltage-dependent, P/Q type, alpha 1Asubunit), ATXN80S (ATXN8 opposite strand (non-protein coding)), PPP2R2B(protein phosphatase 2, regulatory subunit B, beta), ATXN7 (ataxin 7),TNRC6B (trinucleotide repeat containing 6B), TNRC6C (trinucleotiderepeat containing 6C), CELF3 (CUGBP, Elav-like family member 3), MAB21L1(mab-21-like 1 (C. elegans)), MSH2 (mutS homolog 2, colon cancer,nonpolyposis type 1 (E. coli)), TMEM185A (transmembrane protein 185A),SIX5 (SIX homeobox 5), CNPY3 (canopy 3 homolog (zebrafish)), FRAXE(fragile site, folic acid type, rare, fra(X)(q28) E), GNB2 (guaninenucleotide binding protein (G protein), beta polypeptide 2), RPL14(ribosomal protein L14), ATXN8 (ataxin 8), INSR (insulin receptor), TTR(transthyretin), EP400 (E1A binding protein p400), GIGYF2 (GRB10interacting GYF protein 2), OGG1 (8-oxoguanine DNA glycosylase), STC1(stanniocalcin 1), CNDP1 (carnosine dipeptidase 1 (metallopeptidase M20family)), C10orf2 (chromosome 10 open reading frame 2), MAML3mastermind-like 3 (Drosophila), DKC1 (dyskeratosis congenita 1,dyskerin), PAXIP1 (PAX interacting (with transcription-activationdomain) protein 1), CASK (calcium/calmodulin-dependent serine proteinkinase (MAGUK family)), MAPT (microtubule-associated protein tau), SP1(Spl transcription factor), POLG (polymerase (DNA directed), gamma),AFF2 (AF4/FMR2 family, member 2), THBS1 (thrombospondin 1), TP53 (tumorprotein p53), ESR1 (estrogen receptor 1), CGGBP1 (CGG triplet repeatbinding protein 1), ABT1 (activator of basal transcription 1), KLK3(kallikrein-related peptidase 3), PRNP (prion protein), JUN (junoncogene), KCNN3 (potassium intermediate/small conductancecalcium-activated channel, subfamily N, member 3), BAX (BCL2-associatedX protein), FRAXA (fragile site, folic acid type, rare, fra(X)(q27.3) A(macroorchidism, mental retardation)), KBTBD10 (kelch repeat and BTB(POZ) domain containing 10), MBNL1 (muscleblind-like (Drosophila)),RAD51 (RAD51 homolog (RecA homolog, E. coli) (S. cerevisiae)), NCOA3(nuclear receptor coactivator 3), ERDA1 (expanded repeat domain, CAG/CTG1), TSC1 (tuberous sclerosis 1), COMP (cartilage oligomeric matrixprotein), GCLC (glutamate-cysteine ligase, catalytic subunit), RRAD(Ras-related associated with diabetes), MSH3 (mutS homolog 3 (E. coli)),DRD2 (dopamine receptor D2), CD44 (CD44 molecule (Indian blood group)),CTCF (CCCTC-binding factor (zinc finger protein)), CCND1 (cyclin D1),CLSPN (claspin homolog (Xenopus laevis)), MEF2A (myocyte enhancer factor2A), PTPRU (protein tyrosine phosphatase, receptor type, U), GAPDH(glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase), TRIM22 (tripartitemotif-containing 22), WT1 (Wilms tumor 1), AHR (aryl hydrocarbonreceptor), GPX1 (glutathione peroxidase 1), TPMT (thiopurineS-methyltransferase), NDP (Norrie disease (pseudoglioma)), ARX(aristaless related homeobox), MUS81 (MUS81 endonuclease homolog (S.cerevisiae)), TYR (tyrosinase (oculocutaneous albinism IA)), EGR1 (earlygrowth response 1), UNG (uracil-DNA glycosylase), NUMBL (numb homolog(Drosophila)-like), FABP2 (fatty acid binding protein 2, intestinal),EN2 (engrailed homeobox 2), CRYGC (crystallin, gamma C), SRP14 (signalrecognition particle 14 kDa (homologous Alu RNA binding protein)), CRYGB(crystallin, gamma B), PDCD1 (programmed cell death 1), HOXA1 (homeoboxA1), ATXN2L (ataxin 2-like), PMS2 (PMS2 postmeiotic segregationincreased 2 (S. cerevisiae)), GLA (galactosidase, alpha), CBL (Cas-Br-M(murine) ecotropic retroviral transforming sequence), FTH1 (ferritin,heavy polypeptide 1), IL12RB2 (interleukin 12 receptor, beta 2), OTX2(orthodenticle homeobox 2), HOXA5 (homeobox A5), POLG2 (polymerase (DNAdirected), gamma 2, accessory subunit), DLX2 (distal-less homeobox 2),SIRPA (signal-regulatory protein alpha), OTX1 (orthodenticle homeobox1), AHRR (aryl-hydrocarbon receptor repressor), MANF (mesencephalicastrocyte-derived neurotrophic factor), TMEM158 (transmembrane protein158 (gene/pseudogene)), and ENSG00000078687.

Preferred proteins associated with trinucleotide repeat expansiondisorders include HTT (Huntingtin), AR (androgen receptor), FXN(frataxin), Atxn3 (ataxin), Atxnl (ataxin), Atxn2 (ataxin), Atxn7(ataxin), Atxn10 (ataxin), DMPK (dystrophia myotonica-protein kinase),Atn1 (atrophin 1), CBP (creb binding protein), VLDLR (very low densitylipoprotein receptor), and any combination thereof.

According to another aspect, a method of gene therapy for the treatmentof a subject having a mutation in the CFTR gene is provided andcomprises administering a therapeutically effective amount of aCRISPR-Cas gene therapy particle, optionally via a biocompatiblepharmaceutical carrier, to the cells of a subject. Preferably, thetarget DNA comprises the mutation deltaF508. In general, it is ofpreferred that the mutation is repaired to the wildtype. In this case,the mutation is a deletion of the three nucleotides that comprise thecodon for phenylalanine (F) at position 508. Accordingly, repair in thisinstance requires reintroduction of the missing codon into the mutant.

To implement this Gene Repair Strategy, it is preferred that anadenovirus/AAV vector system is introduced into the host cell, cells orpatient. Preferably, the system comprises a Cas9 (or Cas9 nickase) andthe guide RNA along with a adenovirus/AAV vector system comprising thehomology repair template containing the F508 residue. This may beintroduced into the subject via one of the methods of delivery discussedearlier. The CRISPR-Cas system may be guided by the CFTRdelta 508chimeric guide RNA. It targets a specific site of the CFTR genomic locusto be nicked or cleaved. After cleavage, the repair template is insertedinto the cleavage site via homologous recombination correcting thedeletion that results in cystic fibrosis or causes cystic fibrosisrelated symptoms. This strategy to direct delivery and provide systemicintroduction of CRISPR systems with appropriate guide RNAs can beemployed to target genetic mutations to edit or otherwise manipulategenes that cause metabolic, liver, kidney and protein diseases anddisorders such as those in Table B.

Genome Editing

The CRISPR/Cas9 systems of the present invention can be used to correctgenetic mutations that were previously attempted with limited successusing TALEN and ZFN. For example, WO2013163628 A2, Genetic Correction ofMutated Genes, published application of Duke University describesefforts to correct, for example, a frameshift mutation which causes apremature stop codon and a truncated gene product that can be correctedvia nuclease mediated non-homologous end joining such as thoseresponsible for Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy, (“DMD”) a recessive, fatal,X-linked disorder that results in muscle degeneration due to mutationsin the dystrophin gene. The majority of dystrophin mutations that causeDMD are deletions of exons that disrupt the reading frame and causepremature translation termination in the dystrophin gene. Dystrophin isa cytoplasmic protein that provides structural stability to thedystroglycan complex of the cell membrane that is responsible forregulating muscle cell integrity and function. The dystrophin gene or“DMD gene” as used interchangeably herein is 2.2 megabases at locusXp21. The primary transcription measures about 2,400 kb with the maturemRNA being about 14 kb. 79 exons code for the protein which is over 3500amino acids. Exon 51 is frequently adjacent to frame-disruptingdeletions in DMD patients and has been targeted in clinical trials foroligonucleotide-based exon skipping. A clinical trial for the exon 51skipping compound eteplirsen recently reported a significant functionalbenefit across 48 weeks, with an average of 47% dystrophin positivefibers compared to baseline. Mutations in exon 51 are ideally suited forpermanent correction by NHEJ-based genome editing.

The methods of US Patent Publication No. 20130145487 assigned toCellectis, which relates to meganuclease variants to cleave a targetsequence from the human dystrophin gene (DMD), may also be modified tofor the CRISPR Cas system of the present invention.

Blood

The present invention also contemplates delivering the CRISPR-Cas systemto the blood.

The plasma exosomes of Wahlgren et al. (Nucleic Acids Research, 2012,Vol. 40, No. 17 e130) were previously described and may be utilized todeliver the CRISPR Cas system to the blood.

The CRISPR Cas system of the present invention is also contemplated totreat hemoglobinopathies, such as thalassemias and sickle cell disease.See, e.g., International Patent Publication No. WO 2013/126794 forpotential targets that may be targeted by the CRISPR Cas system of thepresent invention.

US Patent Publication Nos. 20110225664, 20110091441, 20100229252,20090271881 and 20090222937 assigned to Cellectis, relates to CREIvariants, wherein at least one of the two I-CreI monomers has at leasttwo substitutions, one in each of the two functional subdomains of theLAGLIDADG core domain (SEQ ID NO: 62) situated respectively frompositions 26 to 40 and 44 to 77 of I-CreI, said variant being able tocleave a DNA target sequence from the human interleukin-2 receptor gammachain (IL2RG) gene also named common cytokine receptor gamma chain geneor gamma C gene. The target sequences identified in US PatentPublication Nos. 20110225664, 20110091441, 20100229252, 20090271881 and20090222937 may be utilized for the CRISPR Cas system of the presentinvention.

Severe Combined Immune Deficiency (SCID) results from a defect inlymphocytes T maturation, always associated with a functional defect inlymphocytes B (Cavazzana-Calvo et al., Annu. Rev. Med., 2005, 56,585-602; Fischer et al., Immunol. Rev., 2005, 203, 98-109). Overallincidence is estimated to 1 in 75 000 births. Patients with untreatedSCID are subject to multiple opportunist micro-organism infections, anddo generally not live beyond one year. SCID can be treated by allogenichematopoietic stem cell transfer, from a familial donor.Histocompatibility with the donor can vary widely. In the case ofAdenosine Deaminase (ADA) deficiency, one of the SCID forms, patientscan be treated by injection of recombinant Adenosine Deaminase enzyme.

Since the ADA gene has been shown to be mutated in SCID patients(Giblett et al., Lancet, 1972, 2, 1067-1069), several other genesinvolved in SCID have been identified (Cavazzana-Calvo et al., Annu.Rev. Med., 2005, 56, 585-602; Fischer et al., Immunol. Rev., 2005, 203,98-109). There are four major causes for SCID: (i) the most frequentform of SCID, SCID-X1 (X-linked SCID or X-SCID), is caused by mutationin the IL2RG gene, resulting in the absence of mature T lymphocytes andNK cells. IL2RG encodes the gamma C protein (Noguchi, et al., Cell,1993, 73, 147-157), a common component of at least five interleukinreceptor complexes. These receptors activate several targets through theJAK3 kinase (Macchi et al., Nature, 1995, 377, 65-68), whichinactivation results in the same syndrome as gamma C inactivation; (ii)mutation in the ADA gene results in a defect in purine metabolism thatis lethal for lymphocyte precursors, which in turn results in the quasiabsence of B, T and NK cells; (iii) V(D)J recombination is an essentialstep in the maturation of immunoglobulins and T lymphocytes receptors(TCRs). Mutations in Recombination Activating Gene 1 and 2 (RAG1 andRAG2) and Artemis, three genes involved in this process, result in theabsence of mature T and B lymphocytes; and (iv) Mutations in other genessuch as CD45, involved in T cell specific signaling have also beenreported, although they represent a minority of cases (Cavazzana-Calvoet al., Annu. Rev. Med., 2005, 56, 585-602; Fischer et al., Immunol.Rev., 2005, 203, 98-109).

Since when their genetic bases have been identified, the different SCIDforms have become a paradigm for gene therapy approaches (Fischer etal., Immunol. Rev., 2005, 203, 98-109) for two major reasons. First, asin all blood diseases, an ex vivo treatment can be envisioned.Hematopoietic Stem Cells (HSCs) can be recovered from bone marrow, andkeep their pluripotent properties for a few cell divisions. Therefore,they can be treated in vitro, and then reinjected into the patient,where they repopulate the bone marrow. Second, since the maturation oflymphocytes is impaired in SCID patients, corrected cells have aselective advantage. Therefore, a small number of corrected cells canrestore a functional immune system. This hypothesis was validatedseveral times by (i) the partial restoration of immune functionsassociated with the reversion of mutations in SCID patients (Hirschhornet al., Nat. Genet., 1996, 13, 290-295; Stephan et al., N. Engl. J.Med., 1996, 335, 1563-1567; Bousso et al., Proc. Natl., Acad. Sci. USA,2000, 97, 274-278; Wada et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 2001, 98,8697-8702; Nishikomori et al., Blood, 2004, 103, 4565-4572), (ii) thecorrection of SCID-X1 deficiencies in vitro in hematopoietic cells(Candotti et al., Blood, 1996, 87, 3097-3102; Cavazzana-Calvo et al.,Blood, 1996, Blood, 88, 3901-3909; Taylor et al., Blood, 1996, 87,3103-3107; Hacein-Bey et al., Blood, 1998, 92, 4090-4097), (iii) thecorrection of SCID-X1 (Soudais et al., Blood, 2000, 95, 3071-3077; Tsaiet al., Blood, 2002, 100, 72-79), JAK-3 (Bunting et al., Nat. Med.,1998, 4, 58-64; Bunting et al., Hum. Gene Ther., 2000, 11, 2353-2364)and RAG2 (Yates et al., Blood, 2002, 100, 3942-3949) deficiencies invivo in animal models and (iv) by the result of gene therapy clinicaltrials (Cavazzana-Calvo et al., Science, 2000, 288, 669-672; Aiuti etal., Nat. Med., 2002; 8, 423-425; Gaspar et al., Lancet, 2004, 364,2181-2187).

US Patent Publication No. 20110182867 assigned to the Children's MedicalCenter Corporation and the President and Fellows of Harvard Collegerelates to methods and uses of modulating fetal hemoglobin expression(HbF) in a hematopoietic progenitor cells via inhibitors of BCL11Aexpression or activity, such as RNAi and antibodies. The targetsdisclosed in US Patent Publication No. 20110182867, such as BCL11A, maybe targeted by the CRISPR Cas system of the present invention formodulating fetal hemoglobin expression. See also Bauer et al. (Science11 Oct. 2013: Vol. 342 no. 6155 pp. 253-257) and Xu et al. (Science 18Nov. 2011: Vol. 334 no. 6058 pp. 993-996) for additional BCL11A targets.

Suitable cells can be identified by analyzing (e.g., qualitatively orquantitatively) the presence of one or more tissue specific genes. Forexample, gene expression can be detected by detecting the proteinproduct of one or more tissue-specific genes. Protein detectiontechniques involve staining proteins (e.g., using cell extracts or wholecells) using antibodies against the appropriate antigen. In this case,the appropriate antigen is the protein product of the tissue-specificgene expression. Although, in principle, a first antibody (i.e., theantibody that binds the antigen) can be labeled, it is more common (andimproves the visualization) to use a second antibody directed againstthe first (e.g., an anti-IgG). This second antibody is conjugated eitherwith fluorochromes, or appropriate enzymes for colorimetric reactions,or gold beads (for electron microscopy), or with the biotin-avidinsystem, so that the location of the primary antibody, and thus theantigen, can be recognized.

In some embodiments the RNA molecules of the invention are delivered inliposome or lipofectin formulations and the like and can be prepared bymethods well known to those skilled in the art. Such methods aredescribed, for example, in U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,593,972, 5,589,466, and5,580,859, which are herein incorporated by reference.

Delivery systems aimed specifically at the enhanced and improveddelivery of siRNA into mammalian cells have been developed, (see, forexample, Shen et al FEBS Let. 2003, 539:111-114; Xia et al., Nat.Biotech. 2002, 20:1006-1010; Reich et al., Mol. Vision. 2003, 9:210-216; Sorensen et al., J. Mol. Biol. 2003, 327: 761-766; Lewis etal., Nat. Gen. 2002, 32: 107-108 and Simeoni et al., NAR 2003, 31, 11:2717-2724) and may be applied to the present invention. siRNA hasrecently been successfully used for inhibition of gene expression inprimates (see for example. Tolentino et al., Retina 24(4):660 which mayalso be applied to the present invention.

Kidneys

The present invention also contemplates delivering the CRISPR-Cas systemto the kidney. Delivery strategies to induce cellular uptake of thetherapeutic nucleic acid include physical force or vector systems suchas viral-, lipid- or complex-based delivery, or nanocarriers. From theinitial applications with less possible clinical relevance, when nucleicacids were addressed to renal cells with hydrodynamic high pressureinjection systemically, a wide range of gene therapeutic viral andnon-viral carriers have been applied already to targetposttranscriptional events in different animal kidney disease models invivo (Csaba Révész and Peter Hamar (2011). Delivery Methods to TargetRNAs in the Kidney, Gene Therapy Applications, Prof. Chunsheng Kang(Ed.), ISBN: 978-953-307-541-9, InTech, Available at the wesbiste:intecho¹ pen.com/books/gene-therapy-applications/delivery-methods-to-target-rnas-in-the-kidney).Delivery methods to the kidney are summarized as follows:

Delivery method Carrier Target RNA Disease Model Functional assaysAuthor Hydrodynamic/ TransIT In Vivo Gene p85a Acute renal Ischemia-Uptake, Larson et al., Surgery, Lipid Delivery System, injuryreperfusion biodistribution (August 2007), Vol. 142, DOTAP No. 2, pp.(262-269) Hydrodynamic/ Lipofectamine 2000 Fas Acute renal Ischemia-Blood urea nitrogen, Hamar et al., Proc Lipid injury reperfusion FasNatl Acad Sci, (October Immunohisto- 2004), Vol. 101, No. chemistry, 41,pp. (14883-14888) apoptosis, histological scoring Hydrodynamic n.a.Apoptosis Acute renal Ischemia- n.a. Zheng et al., Am J cascade elementsinjury reperfusion Pathol, (October 2008), Vol. 173, No. 4, pp.(973-980) Hydrodynamic n.a. Nuclear factor Acute renal Ischemia- n.a.Feng et al., kappa-b (NFkB) injury reperfusion Transplantation, (May2009), Vol. 87, No. 9, pp. (1283-1289) Hydrodynamic/ Lipofectamine 2000Apoptosis Acute renal Ischemia- Apoptosis, oxidative Xie & Guo, Am SocViral antagonizing injury reperfusion stress, caspase Nephroi, (Decembertranscription activation, 2006), Vol. 17, No. 12, factor (AATF) membranelipid pp. (3336-3346) peroxidation Hydrodynamic pBAsi mU6 Neo/ GremlinDiabetic Streptozotozin- Proteinuria, serum Q. Zhang et al., PloSTransIT-EE nephropathy induced creatinine, ONE, (July 2010), Vol.Hydrodynamic diabetes glomerular and 5, No. 7, e11709, pp. DeliverySystem tubular diameter, (1-13) collagen type IV/BMP7 expressionViral/Lipid pSUPER TGF-β type II Interstitial renal Unilateral α-SMAexpression, Kushibikia et al., J vector/Lipofectamine receptor fibrosisurethral collagen content, Controlled Release, obstruction (July 2005),Vol. 105, No. 3, pp. (318-331) Viral Adeno-associated Mineral corticoidHyper-tension Cold-induced blood pressure, Wang et al., Gene virus-2receptor caused renal hypertension serum albumin, Therapy, (July 2006),damage serum urea nitrogen, Vol. 13, No. 14, pp. serum creatinine,(1097-1103) kidney weight, urinary sodium Hydrodynamic/ pU6 vectorLuciferase n.a. n.a. uptake Kobayashi et al., Viral Journal ofPharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics, (February 2004), Vol. 308,No. 2, pp. (688-693) Lipid Lipoproteins, albumin apoB 1, apoM n.a. n.a.Uptake, binding Wolfram et al., affinity to Nature lipoproteins andBiotechnology, (Septem- albumin ber 2007), Vol. 25, No. 10, pp.(1149-1157) Lipid Lipofectamine2000 p53 Acute renal Ischemic andHistological scoring, Molitoris et al., J Am injury cisplatin- apoptosisSoc Nephrol, (August induced acute 2009), Vol. 20, No. 8, injury pp.(1754-1764) Lipid DOTAP/DOPE, COX-2 Breast adeno- MDA-MB-231 Cellviability, uptake Mikhaylova et al., DOTAP/DO carcinoma breast cancerCancer Gene Therapy, PE/DOPE- PEG2000 xenograft- (March 2011), Vol. 16,bearing mouse No. 3, pp. (217-226) Lipid Cholesterol 12/15- DiabeticStreptozotocin- Albuminuria, urinary Yuan et al., Am J lipoxygenasenephro-pathy induced creatinine, histology, Physiol Renal diabetes typeI and IV Physiol, (June 2008), collagen, TGF-I3, Vol. 295, pp. (F605-fibronectin, F617) plasminogen activator inhibitor 1 Lipid Lipofectamine2000 Mitochondrial Diabetic Streptozotocin- Cell proliferation and Y.Zhang et al., J Am membrane 44 nephro-pathy induced apoptosis,histology, Soc Nephrol, (April (TIM44) diabetes ROS, mitochondrial2006), Vol. 17, No. 4, import of Mn-SOD pp. (1090-1101) and glutathioneperoxidase, cellular membrane polarization Hydrodynamic/ Proteolipo-someRLIP76 Renal Caki-2 kidney uptake Singhal et al., Cancer Lipid carcinomacancer Res, (May 2009), Vol. xenograft- 69, No. 10, pp. (4244- bearingmouse 4251) Polymer PEGylated PEI Luciferase pGL3 n.a. n.a. Uptake,Malek et al., biodistribution, Toxicology and Applied erythrocytePharmacology, (April aggregation 2009), Vol. 236, No. 1, pp. (97-108)Polymer PEGylated MAPK1 Lupus Glomerulo- Proteinuria, Shimizu et al., JAm poly-L-lysine glomerulo- nephritis glomerulosclerosis Soc Nephrology,(April nephritis TGF-β, fibronectin 2010), Vol. 21, No. 4, plasminogenpp. (622-633) activator inhibitor 1 Polymer/Nano Hyaluronic acid/ VEGFKidney cancer/ B16F1 Biodistribution, Jiang et al., Molecular particleQuantum dot/ PEI melanoma melanoma citotoxicity, tumor Pharmaceutics,(May- tumor-bearing volume, endocytosis June 2009), Vol. 6, No. mouse 3,pp. (727-737) Polymer/Nano PEGylated polycapro- GAPDH n.a. n.a. cellviability, uptake Cao et al, J Controlled particle lactone nanofiberRelease, (June 2010), Vol. 144, No. 2, pp. (203-212) Aptamer SpiegelmerCC chemokine Glomerulo Uninephrecto- urinary albumin, Ninichuk et al.,Am J mNOX-E36 ligand 2 sclerosis mized mouse urinary creatinine, Pathol,(March 2008), histopathology, Vol. 172, No. 3, pp. glomerular filtration(628-637) rate, macrophage count, serum Ccl2, Mac-2+, Ki-67+ AptamerAptamer NOX-F37 vasopressin Congestive n.a. Binding affinity to Purschkeet al., Proc (AVP) heart failure D-AVP, Inhibition of Natl Acad Sci,(March AVP Signaling, 2006), Vol. 103, No. Urine osmolality and 13, pp.(5173-5178) sodium concentration,

Similar methods may be employed for delivery to the liver.

Although relevant to the lungs, CFTR is an excellent example of aserious monogenic condietion that is now being successfully targeted byCRISPR. For an example of CFTRdelta508 chimeric guide RNA, see Example22 which demonstrates gene transfer or gene delivery of a CRISPR-Cassystem in airways of subject or a patient in need thereof, sufferingfrom cystic fibrosis or from cystic fibrosis (CF) related symptoms,using adeno-associated virus (AAV) particles. In particular, theyexemplify a repair strategy for Cystic Fibrosis delta F508 mutation.This type of strategy should apply across all organisms. With particularreference to CF, suitable patients may include: Human, non-primatehuman, canine, feline, bovine, equine and other domestic animals. Inthis instance, Applicants utilized a CRISPR-Cas system comprising a Cas9enzyme to target deltaF508 or other CFTR-inducing mutations.

The treated subjects in this instance receive pharmaceutically effectiveamount of aerosolized AAV vector system per lung endobronchiallydelivered while spontaneously breathing. As such, aerosolized deliveryis preferred for AAV delivery in general. An adenovirus or an AAVparticle may be used for delivery. Suitable gene constructs, eachoperably linked to one or more regulatory sequences, may be cloned intothe delivery vector. In this instance, the following constructs areprovided as examples: Cbh or EF1a promoter for Cas9, U6 or H1 promoterfor chimeric guide RNA): A preferred arrangement is to use aCFTRdelta508 targeting chimeric guide, a repair template for deltaF508mutation and a codon optimized Cas9 enzyme (preferred Cas9s are thosewith nuclease or nickase activity) with optionally one or more nuclearlocalization signal or sequence(s) (NLS(s)), e.g., two (2) NLSs.Constructs without NLS are also envisaged.

In order to identify the Cas9 target site, Applicants analyzed the humanCFTR genomic locus and identified the Cas9 target site. Preferably, ingeneral and in this CF case, the PAM may contain a NGG or a NNAGAAWmotif.

Accordingly, in the case of CF, the present method comprisesmanipulation of a target sequence in a genomic locus of interestcomprising

delivering a non-naturally occurring or engineered compositioncomprising a viral vector system comprising one or more viral vectorsoperably encoding a composition for expression thereof, wherein thecomposition comprises:

a non-naturally occurring or engineered composition comprising a vectorsystem comprising one or more vectors comprising

I. a first regulatory element operably linked to a CRISPR-Cas systemchimeric RNA (chiRNA) polynucleotide sequence, wherein thepolynucleotide sequence comprises

(a) a guide sequence capable of hybridizing to the CF target sequence ina suitable mammalian cell,

(b) a tracr mate sequence, and

(c) a tracr sequence, and

II. a second regulatory element operably linked to an enzyme-codingsequence encoding a CRISPR enzyme comprising at least one or morenuclear localization sequences,

wherein (a), (b) and (c) are arranged in a 5′ to 3′ orientation,

wherein components I and II are located on the same or different vectorsof the system, wherein when transcribed, the tracr mate sequencehybridizes to the tracr sequence and the guide sequence directssequence-specific binding of a CRISPR complex to the target sequence,and wherein the CRISPR complex comprises the CRISPR enzyme complexedwith (1) the guide sequence that is hybridized or hybridizable to thetarget sequence, and (2) the tracr mate sequence that is hybridized orhybridizable to the tracr sequence. In respect of CF, preferred targetDNA sequences comprise the CFTRdelta508 mutation. A preferred PAM isdescribed above. A preferred CRISPR enzyme is any Cas (described herein,but particularly that described in Example 22).

Alternatives to CF include any genetic disorder and examples of theseare well known. Another preferred method or use of the invention is forcorrecting defects in the EMP2A and EMP2B genes that have beenidentified to be associated with Lafora disease.

In some embodiments, a “guide sequence” may be distinct from “guideRNA”. A guide sequence may refer to an approx. 20 bp sequence, withinthe guide RNA, that specifies the target site.

In some embodiments, the Cas9 is (or is derived from) SpCas9. In suchembodiments, preferred mutations are at any or all or positions 10, 762,840, 854, 863 and/or 986 of SpCas9 or corresponding positions in otherCas9s (which may be ascertained for instance by standard sequencecomparison tools. In particular, any or all of the following mutationsare preferred in SpCas9: D10A, E762A, H840A, N854A, N863A and/or D986A;as well as conservative substitution for any of the replacement aminoacids is also envisaged. The same (or conservative substitutions ofthese mutations) at corresponding positions in other Cas9s are alsopreferred. Particularly preferred are D10 and H840 in SpCas9. However,in other Cas9s, residues corresponding to SpCas9 D10 and H840 are alsopreferred. These are advantageous as they provide nickase activity. Suchmutations may be applied to all aspects of the present invention, notonly treatment of CF.

Schwank et al. (Cell Stem Cell, 13:653-58, 2013) used CRISPR/Cas9 tocorrect a defect associated with cystic fibrosis in human stem cells.The team's target was the gene for an ion channel, cystic fibrosistransmembrane conductor receptor (CFTR). A deletion in CFTR causes theprotein to misfold in cystic fibrosis patients. Using culturedintestinal stem cells developed from cell samples from two children withcystic fibrosis, Schwank et al. were able to correct the defect usingCRISPR along with a donor plasmid containing the reparative sequence tobe inserted. The researchers then grew the cells into intestinal“organoids,” or miniature guts, and showed that they functionednormally. In this case, about half of clonal organoids underwent theproper genetic correction.

Hepatitis Viruses

The present invention may also be applied to treat hepatitis B virus(HBV). However, the CRISPR Cas system must be adapted to avoid theshortcomings of RNAi, such as the risk of oversatring endogenous smallRNA pathways, by for example, optimizing dose and sequence (see, e.g.,Grimm et al., Nature vol. 441, 26 May 2006). For example, low doses,such as about 1-10×10¹⁴ particles per humane are contemplated.

In another embodiment, the CRISPR Cas system directed against HBV may beadministered in liposomes, such as a stable nucleic-acid-lipid particle(SNALP) (see, e.g., Morrissey et al., Nature Biotechnology, Vol. 23, No.8, August 2005). Daily intravenous injections of about 1, 3 or 5mg/kg/day of CRISPR Cas targeted to HBV RNA in a SNALP are contemplated.The daily treatment may be over about three days and then weekly forabout five weeks.

In another embodiment, the system of Chen et al. (Gene Therapy (2007)14, 11-19) may be used/and or adapted for the CRISPR Cas system of thepresent invention. Chen et al. use a double-stranded adenoassociatedvirus 8-pseudotyped vector (dsAAV2/8) to deliver shRNA. A singleadministration of dsAAV2/8 vector (1×10¹² vector genomes per mouse),carrying HBV-specific shRNA, effectively suppressed the steady level ofHBV protein, mRNA and replicative DNA in liver of HBV transgenic mice,leading to up to 2-3 log₁₀ decrease in HBV load in the circulation.Significant HBV suppression sustained for at least 120 days after vectoradministration. The therapeutic effect of shRNA was target sequencedependent and did not involve activation of interferon. For the presentinvention, a CRISPR Cas system directed to HBV may be cloned into an AAVvector, such as a dsAAV2/8 vector and administered to a human, forexample, at a dosage of about 1×10¹⁵ vector genomes to about 1×10¹⁶vector genomes per human.

In another embodiment, the method of Wooddell et al. (Molecular Therapyvol. 21 no. 5, 973-985 May 2013) may be used/and or adapted to theCRISPR Cas system of the present invention. Woodell et al. show thatsimple coinjection of a hepatocyte-targeted,N-acetylgalactosamine-conjugated melittin-like peptide (NAG-MLP) with aliver-tropic cholesterol-conjugated siRNA (chol-siRNA) targetingcoagulation factor VII (F7) results in efficient F7 knockdown in miceand nonhuman primates without changes in clinical chemistry or inductionof cytokines. Using transient and transgenic mouse models of HBVinfection, Wooddell et al. show that a single coinjection of NAG-MLPwith potent chol-siRNAs targeting conserved HBV sequences resulted inmultilog repression of viral RNA, proteins, and viral DNA with longduration of effect. Intraveinous coinjections, for example, of about 6mg/kg of NAG-MLP and 6 mg/kg of HBV specific CRISPR Cas may beenvisioned for the present invention. In the alternative, about 3 mg/kgof NAG-MLP and 3 mg/kg of HBV specific CRISPR Cas may be delivered onday one, followed by administration of about about 2-3 mg/kg of NAG-MLPand 2-3 mg/kg of HBV specific CRISPR Cas two weeks later.

The present invention may also be applied to treat hepatitis C virus(HCV). The methods of Roelvinki et al. (Molecular Therapy vol. 20 no. 9,1737-1749 September 2012) may be applied to the CRISPR Cas system. Forexample, an AAV vector such as AAV8 may be a contemplated vector and forexample a dosage of about 1.25×10¹¹ to 1.25×10¹³ vector genomes perkilogram body weight (vg/kg) may be contemplated.

In yet another embodiment, CRISPR-Cas9-mediated genome editing can beused to correct a disease mutation and/or phenotype. ThatCRISPR-Cas9-mediated genome editing can be used to correct a diseasemutation and/or phenotype in the liver and or hepatocytes is illustratedin the manuscript entitled “Genome editing with Cas9 in adult micecorrects a disease mutation and phenotype” by Hao Yin et al. publishedat Nature Biotechnology published online March 2014; corrected online 31Mar. 2014, available at the websitenature.com/doifinder/10.1038/nbt.2884, incorporated herein by referencein its entirety. The paper relates to CRISPR-Cas9-mediated correction ofa Fah mutation in hepatocytes in a mouse model of the human diseasehereditary tyrosinemia. It was shown that delivery of components of theCRISPR-Cas9 system by hydrodynamic injection resulted in initialexpression of the wild-type Fah protein in 1/250 liver cells. It wasfurther shown that expansion of Fah-positive hepatocytes rescued thebody weight loss phenotype.

It will be readily apparent that a host of other diseases can be treatedin a similar fashion. Some examples of genetic diseases caused bymutations are provided herein, but many more are known. The abovestrategy can be applied to these diseases.

Nucleic Acids, Amino Acids and Proteins

The invention uses nucleic acids to bind target DNA sequences. This isadvantageous as nucleic acids are much easier and cheaper to producethan proteins, and the specificity can be varied according to the lengthof the stretch where homology is sought. Complex 3-D positioning ofmultiple fingers, for example is not required.

The terms “polynucleotide”, “nucleotide”, “nucleotide sequence”,“nucleic acid” and “oligonucleotide” are used interchangeably. Theyrefer to a polymeric form of nucleotides of any length, eitherdeoxyribonucleotides or ribonucleotides, or analogs thereof.Polynucleotides may have any three dimensional structure, and mayperform any function, known or unknown. The following are non-limitingexamples of polynucleotides: coding or non-coding regions of a gene orgene fragment, loci (locus) defined from linkage analysis, exons,introns, messenger RNA (mRNA), transfer RNA, ribosomal RNA, shortinterfering RNA (siRNA), short-hairpin RNA (shRNA), micro-RNA (miRNA),ribozymes, cDNA, recombinant polynucleotides, branched polynucleotides,plasmids, vectors, isolated DNA of any sequence, isolated RNA of anysequence, nucleic acid probes, and primers. The term also encompassesnucleic-acid-like structures with synthetic backbones, see, e.g., WO97/03211; WO 96/39154. A polynucleotide may comprise one or moremodified nucleotides, such as methylated nucleotides and nucleotideanalogs. If present, modifications to the nucleotide structure may beimparted before or after assembly of the polymer. The sequence ofnucleotides may be interrupted by non-nucleotide components. Apolynucleotide may be further modified after polymerization, such as byconjugation with a labeling component.

As used herein the term “wild type” is a term of the art understood byskilled persons and means the typical form of an organism, strain, geneor characteristic as it occurs in nature as distinguished from mutant orvariant forms.

As used herein the term “variant” should be taken to mean the exhibitionof qualities that have a pattern that deviates from what occurs innature.

The terms “non-naturally occurring” or “engineered” are usedinterchangeably and indicate the involvement of the hand of man. Theterms, when referring to nucleic acid molecules or polypeptides meanthat the nucleic acid molecule or the polypeptide is at leastsubstantially free from at least one other component with which they arenaturally associated in nature and as found in nature.

“Complementarity” refers to the ability of a nucleic acid to formhydrogen bond(s) with another nucleic acid sequence by eithertraditional Watson-Crick base pairing or other non-traditional types. Apercent complementarity indicates the percentage of residues in anucleic acid molecule which can form hydrogen bonds (e.g., Watson-Crickbase pairing) with a second nucleic acid sequence (e.g., 5, 6, 7, 8, 9,10 out of 10 being 50%, 60%, 70%, 80%, 90%, and 100% complementary).“Perfectly complementary” means that all the contiguous residues of anucleic acid sequence will hydrogen bond with the same number ofcontiguous residues in a second nucleic acid sequence. “Substantiallycomplementary” as used herein refers to a degree of complementarity thatis at least 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 97%, 98%, 99%, or100% over a region of 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20,21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45, 50, or more nucleotides, or refersto two nucleic acids that hybridize under stringent conditions.

As used herein, “stringent conditions” for hybridization refer toconditions under which a nucleic acid having complementarity to a targetsequence predominantly hybridizes with the target sequence, andsubstantially does not hybridize to non-target sequences. Stringentconditions are generally sequence-dependent, and vary depending on anumber of factors. In general, the longer the sequence, the higher thetemperature at which the sequence specifically hybridizes to its targetsequence. Non-limiting examples of stringent conditions are described indetail in Tijssen (1993), Laboratory Techniques In Biochemistry AndMolecular Biology-Hybridization With Nucleic Acid Probes Part I, SecondChapter “Overview of principles of hybridization and the strategy ofnucleic acid probe assay”, Elsevier, N.Y. Where reference is made to apolynucleotide sequence, then complementary or partially complementarysequences are also envisaged. These are preferably capable ofhybridising to the reference sequence under highly stringent conditions.Generally, in order to maximize the hybridization rate, relativelylow-stringency hybridization conditions are selected: about 20 to 25° C.lower than the thermal melting point (T_(m)). The T_(m) is thetemperature at which 50% of specific target sequence hybridizes to aperfectly complementary probe in solution at a defined ionic strengthand pH. Generally, in order to require at least about 85% nucleotidecomplementarity of hybridized or hybridizable sequences, highlystringent washing conditions are selected to be about 5 to 15° C. lowerthan the T_(m). In order to require at least about 70% nucleotidecomplementarity of hybridized or hybridizable sequences,moderately-stringent washing conditions are selected to be about 15 to30° C. lower than the T_(m). Highly permissive (very low stringency)washing conditions may be as low as 50° C. below the T_(m), allowing ahigh level of mis-matching between hybridized or hybridizable sequences.Those skilled in the art will recognize that other physical and chemicalparameters in the hybridization and wash stages can also be altered toaffect the outcome of a detectable hybridization signal from a specificlevel of homology between target and probe sequences. Preferred highlystringent conditions comprise incubation in 50% formamide, 5×SSC, and 1%SDS at 42° C., or incubation in 5×SSC and 1% SDS at 65° C., with wash in0.2×SSC and 0.1% SDS at 65° C.

“Hybridization” refers to a reaction in which one or morepolynucleotides react to form a complex that is stabilized via hydrogenbonding between the bases of the nucleotide residues. The hydrogenbonding may occur by Watson Crick base pairing, Hoogstein binding, or inany other sequence specific manner. The complex may comprise two strandsforming a duplex structure, three or more strands forming a multistranded complex, a single self-hybridizing strand, or any combinationof these. A hybridization reaction may constitute a step in a moreextensive process, such as the initiation of PCR, or the cleavage of apolynucleotide by an enzyme. A sequence capable of hybridizing with agiven sequence is referred to as the “complement” of the given sequence.

As used herein, the term “genomic locus” or “locus” (plural loci) is thespecific location of a gene or DNA sequence on a chromosome. A “gene”refers to stretches of DNA or RNA that encode a polypeptide or an RNAchain that has functional role to play in an organism and hence is themolecular unit of heredity in living organisms. For the purpose of thisinvention it may be considered that genes include regions which regulatethe production of the gene product, whether or not such regulatorysequences are adjacent to coding and/or transcribed sequences.Accordingly, a gene includes, but is not necessarily limited to,promoter sequences, terminators, translational regulatory sequences suchas ribosome binding sites and internal ribosome entry sites, enhancers,silencers, insulators, boundary elements, replication origins, matrixattachment sites and locus control regions.

As used herein, “expression of a genomic locus” or “gene expression” isthe process by which information from a gene is used in the synthesis ofa functional gene product. The products of gene expression are oftenproteins, but in non-protein coding genes such as rRNA genes or tRNAgenes, the product is functional RNA. The process of gene expression isused by all known life—eukaryotes (including multicellular organisms),prokaryotes (bacteria and archaea) and viruses to generate functionalproducts to survive. As used herein “expression” of a gene or nucleicacid encompasses not only cellular gene expression, but also thetranscription and translation of nucleic acid(s) in cloning systems andin any other context. As used herein, “expression” also refers to theprocess by which a polynucleotide is transcribed from a DNA template(such as into and mRNA or other RNA transcript) and/or the process bywhich a transcribed mRNA is subsequently translated into peptides,polypeptides, or proteins. Transcripts and encoded polypeptides may becollectively referred to as “gene product.” If the polynucleotide isderived from genomic DNA, expression may include splicing of the mRNA ina eukaryotic cell.

The terms “polypeptide”, “peptide” and “protein” are usedinterchangeably herein to refer to polymers of amino acids of anylength. The polymer may be linear or branched, it may comprise modifiedamino acids, and it may be interrupted by non amino acids. The termsalso encompass an amino acid polymer that has been modified; forexample, disulfide bond formation, glycosylation, lipidation,acetylation, phosphorylation, or any other manipulation, such asconjugation with a labeling component. As used herein the term “aminoacid” includes natural and/or unnatural or synthetic amino acids,including glycine and both the D or L optical isomers, and amino acidanalogs and peptidomimetics.

As used herein, the term “domain” or “protein domain” refers to a partof a protein sequence that may exist and function independently of therest of the protein chain.

As described in aspects of the invention, sequence identity is relatedto sequence homology. Homology comparisons may be conducted by eye, ormore usually, with the aid of readily available sequence comparisonprograms. These commercially available computer programs may calculatepercent (%) homology between two or more sequences and may alsocalculate the sequence identity shared by two or more amino acid ornucleic acid sequences. In some preferred embodiments, the cappingregion of the dTALEs described herein have sequences that are at least95% identical or share identity to the capping region amino acidsequences provided herein.

Sequence homologies may be generated by any of a number of computerprograms known in the art, for example BLAST or FASTA, etc. A suitablecomputer program for carrying out such an alignment is the GCG WisconsinBestfit package (University of Wisconsin, U.S.A; Devereux et al., 1984,Nucleic Acids Research 12:387). Examples of other software than mayperform sequence comparisons include, but are not limited to, the BLASTpackage (see Ausubel et al., 1999 ibid—Chapter 18), FASTA (Atschul etal., 1990, J. Mol. Biol., 403-410) and the GENEWORKS suite of comparisontools. Both BLAST and FASTA are available for offline and onlinesearching (see Ausubel et al., 1999 ibid, pages 7-58 to 7-60). Howeverit is preferred to use the GCG Bestfit program.

Percentage (%) sequence homology may be calculated over contiguoussequences, i.e., one sequence is aligned with the other sequence andeach amino acid or nucleotide in one sequence is directly compared withthe corresponding amino acid or nucleotide in the other sequence, oneresidue at a time. This is called an “ungapped” alignment. Typically,such ungapped alignments are performed only over a relatively shortnumber of residues.

Although this is a very simple and consistent method, it fails to takeinto consideration that, for example, in an otherwise identical pair ofsequences, one insertion or deletion may cause the following amino acidresidues to be put out of alignment, thus potentially resulting in alarge reduction in % homology when a global alignment is performed.Consequently, most sequence comparison methods are designed to produceoptimal alignments that take into consideration possible insertions anddeletions without unduly penalizing the overall homology or identityscore. This is achieved by inserting “gaps” in the sequence alignment totry to maximize local homology or identity.

However, these more complex methods assign “gap penalties” to each gapthat occurs in the alignment so that, for the same number of identicalamino acids, a sequence alignment with as few gaps aspossible—reflecting higher relatedness between the two comparedsequences—may achieve a higher score than one with many gaps. “Affinitygap costs” are typically used that charge a relatively high cost for theexistence of a gap and a smaller penalty for each subsequent residue inthe gap. This is the most commonly used gap scoring system. High gappenalties may, of course, produce optimized alignments with fewer gaps.Most alignment programs allow the gap penalties to be modified. However,it is preferred to use the default values when using such software forsequence comparisons. For example, when using the GCG Wisconsin Bestfitpackage the default gap penalty for amino acid sequences is −12 for agap and −4 for each extension.

Calculation of maximum % homology therefore first requires theproduction of an optimal alignment, taking into consideration gappenalties. A suitable computer program for carrying out such analignment is the GCG Wisconsin Bestfit package (Devereux et al., 1984Nuc. Acids Research 12 p387). Examples of other software than mayperform sequence comparisons include, but are not limited to, the BLASTpackage (see Ausubel et al., 1999 Short Protocols in Molecular Biology,4^(th) Ed.-Chapter 18), FASTA (Altschul et al., 1990 J. Mol. Biol.403-410) and the GENEWORKS suite of comparison tools. Both BLAST andFASTA are available for offline and online searching (see Ausubel etal., 1999, Short Protocols in Molecular Biology, pages 7-58 to 7-60).However, for some applications, it is preferred to use the GCG Bestfitprogram. A new tool, called BLAST 2 Sequences is also available forcomparing protein and nucleotide sequences (see FEMS Microbiol Lett.1999 174(2): 247-50; FEMS Microbiol Lett. 1999 177(1): 187-8 and thewebsite of the National Center for Biotechnology information at thewebsite of the National Institutes for Health).

Although the final % homology may be measured in terms of identity, thealignment process itself is typically not based on an all-or-nothingpair comparison. Instead, a scaled similarity score matrix is generallyused that assigns scores to each pair-wise comparison based on chemicalsimilarity or evolutionary distance. An example of such a matrixcommonly used is the BLOSUM62 matrix—the default matrix for the BLASTsuite of programs. GCG Wisconsin programs generally use either thepublic default values or a custom symbol comparison table, if supplied(see user manual for further details). For some applications, it ispreferred to use the public default values for the GCG package, or inthe case of other software, the default matrix, such as BLOSUM62.

Alternatively, percentage homologies may be calculated using themultiple alignment feature in DNASIS™ (Hitachi Software), based on analgorithm, analogous to CLUSTAL (Higgins D G & Sharp P M (1988), Gene73(1), 237-244). Once the software has produced an optimal alignment, itis possible to calculate % homology, preferably % sequence identity. Thesoftware typically does this as part of the sequence comparison andgenerates a numerical result.

The sequences may also have deletions, insertions or substitutions ofamino acid residues which produce a silent change and result in afunctionally equivalent substance. Deliberate amino acid substitutionsmay be made on the basis of similarity in amino acid properties (such aspolarity, charge, solubility, hydrophobicity, hydrophilicity, and/or theamphipathic nature of the residues) and it is therefore useful to groupamino acids together in functional groups. Amino acids may be groupedtogether based on the properties of their side chains alone. However, itis more useful to include mutation data as well. The sets of amino acidsthus derived are likely to be conserved for structural reasons. Thesesets may be described in the form of a Venn diagram (Livingstone C.D.and Barton G.J. (1993) “Protein sequence alignments: a strategy for thehierarchical analysis of residue conservation” Comput. Appl. Biosci. 9:745-756) (Taylor W.R. (1986) “The classification of amino acidconservation” J. Theor. Biol. 119; 205-218). Conservative substitutionsmay be made, for example according to the table below which describes agenerally accepted Venn diagram grouping of amino acids.

Set Sub-set Hydrophobic F W Y H K M I L Aromatic F W Y H V A G CAliphatic I L V Polar W Y H K R E D C Charged H K R E D S T N QPositively H K R charged Negatively E D charged Small V C A G S P T N DTiny A G S

Embodiments of the invention include sequences (both polynucleotide orpolypeptide) which may comprise homologous substitution (substitutionand replacement are both used herein to mean the interchange of anexisting amino acid residue or nucleotide, with an alternative residueor nucleotide) that may occur i.e., like-for-like substitution in thecase of amino acids such as basic for basic, acidic for acidic, polarfor polar, etc. Non-homologous substitution may also occur i.e., fromone class of residue to another or alternatively involving the inclusionof unnatural amino acids such as ornithine (hereinafter referred to asZ), diaminobutyric acid ornithine (hereinafter referred to as B),norleucine ornithine (hereinafter referred to as O), pyriylalanine,thienylalanine, naphthylalanine and phenylglycine.

Variant amino acid sequences may include suitable spacer groups that maybe inserted between any two amino acid residues of the sequenceincluding alkyl groups such as methyl, ethyl or propyl groups inaddition to amino acid spacers such as glycine or β-alanine residues. Afurther form of variation, which involves the presence of one or moreamino acid residues in peptoid form, may be well understood by thoseskilled in the art. For the avoidance of doubt, “the peptoid form” isused to refer to variant amino acid residues wherein the α-carbonsubstituent group is on the residue's nitrogen atom rather than theα-carbon. Processes for preparing peptides in the peptoid form are knownin the art, for example Simon R J et al., PNAS (1992) 89(20), 9367-9371and Horwell D C, Trends Biotechnol. (1995) 13(4), 132-134.

The practice of the present invention employs, unless otherwiseindicated, conventional techniques of immunology, biochemistry,chemistry, molecular biology, microbiology, cell biology, genomics andrecombinant DNA, which are within the skill of the art. See Sambrook,Fritsch and Maniatis, MOLECULAR CLONING: A LABORATORY MANUAL, 2ndedition (1989); CURRENT PROTOCOLS IN MOLECULAR BIOLOGY (F. M. Ausubel,et al. eds., (1987)); the series METHODS IN ENZYMOLOGY (Academic Press,Inc.): PCR 2: A PRACTICAL APPROACH (M.J. MacPherson, B.D. Hames and G.R.Taylor eds. (1995)), Harlow and Lane, eds. (1988) ANTIBODIES, ALABORATORY MANUAL, and ANIMAL CELL CULTURE (R.I. Freshney, ed. (1987)).

Vectors

In one aspect, the invention provides for vectors that are used in theengineering and optimization of CRISPR-Cas systems.

A used herein, a “vector” is a tool that allows or facilitates thetransfer of an entity from one environment to another. It is a replicon,such as a plasmid, phage, or cosmid, into which another DNA segment maybe inserted so as to bring about the replication of the insertedsegment. Generally, a vector is capable of replication when associatedwith the proper control elements. In general, the term “vector” refersto a nucleic acid molecule capable of transporting another nucleic acidto which it has been linked. Vectors include, but are not limited to,nucleic acid molecules that are single-stranded, double-stranded, orpartially double-stranded; nucleic acid molecules that comprise one ormore free ends, no free ends (e.g. circular); nucleic acid moleculesthat comprise DNA, RNA, or both; and other varieties of polynucleotidesknown in the art. One type of vector is a “plasmid,” which refers to acircular double stranded DNA loop into which additional DNA segments canbe inserted, such as by standard molecular cloning techniques. Anothertype of vector is a viral vector, wherein virally-derived DNA or RNAsequences are present in the vector for packaging into a virus (e.g.retroviruses, replication defective retroviruses, adenoviruses,replication defective adenoviruses, and adeno-associated viruses(AAVs)). Viral vectors also include polynucleotides carried by a virusfor transfection into a host cell. Certain vectors are capable ofautonomous replication in a host cell into which they are introduced(e.g. bacterial vectors having a bacterial origin of replication andepisomal mammalian vectors). Other vectors (e.g., non-episomal mammalianvectors) are integrated into the genome of a host cell upon introductioninto the host cell, and thereby are replicated along with the hostgenome. Moreover, certain vectors are capable of directing theexpression of genes to which they are operatively-linked. Such vectorsare referred to herein as “expression vectors.” Common expressionvectors of utility in recombinant DNA techniques are often in the formof plasmids.

Recombinant expression vectors can comprise a nucleic acid of theinvention in a form suitable for expression of the nucleic acid in ahost cell, which means that the recombinant expression vectors includeone or more regulatory elements, which may be selected on the basis ofthe host cells to be used for expression, that is operatively-linked tothe nucleic acid sequence to be expressed. Within a recombinantexpression vector, “operably linked” is intended to mean that thenucleotide sequence of interest is linked to the regulatory element(s)in a manner that allows for expression of the nucleotide sequence (e.g.in an in vitro transcription/translation system or in a host cell whenthe vector is introduced into the host cell). With regards torecombination and cloning methods, mention is made of U.S. patentapplication Ser. No. 10/815,730, published Sep. 2, 2004 as US2004-0171156 A1, the contents of which are herein incorporated byreference in their entirety.

Aspects of the invention relate to vectors for chimeric RNA and Cas9.Bicistronic expression vectors for chimeric RNA and Cas9 are preferred.In general and particularly in this embodiment Cas9 is preferably drivenby the CBh promoter. The chimeric RNA may preferably be driven by a U6promoter. Ideally the two are combined. The chimeric guide RNA typicallyconsists of a 20 bp guide sequence (Ns) and this may be joined to thetracr sequence (running from the first “U” of the lower strand to theend of the transcript). The tracr sequence may be truncated at variouspositions as indicated. The guide and tracr sequences are separated bythe tracr-mate sequence, which may be GUUUUAGAGCUA (SEQ ID NO: 63). Thismay be followed by the loop sequence GAAA as shown. Both of these arepreferred examples. Applicants have demonstrated Cas9-mediated indels atthe human EMX1 and PVALB loci by SURVEYOR assays. ChiRNAs are indicatedby their “+n” designation, and crRNA refers to a hybrid RNA where guideand tracr sequences are expressed as separate transcripts. Throughoutthis application, chimeric RNA may also be called single guide, orsynthetic guide RNA (sgRNA). The loop is preferably GAAA, but it is notlimited to this sequence or indeed to being only 4 bp in length. Indeed,preferred loop forming sequences for use in hairpin structures are fournucleotides in length, and most preferably have the sequence GAAA.However, longer or shorter loop sequences may be used, as mayalternative sequences. The sequences preferably include a nucleotidetriplet (for example, AAA), and an additional nucleotide (for example Cor G). Examples of loop forming sequences include CAAA and AAAG.

The term “regulatory element” is intended to include promoters,enhancers, internal ribosomal entry sites (IRES), and other expressioncontrol elements (e.g. transcription termination signals, such aspolyadenylation signals and poly-U sequences). Such regulatory elementsare described, for example, in Goeddel, GENE EXPRESSION TECHNOLOGY:METHODS IN ENZYMOLOGY 185, Academic Press, San Diego, Calif. (1990).Regulatory elements include those that direct constitutive expression ofa nucleotide sequence in many types of host cell and those that directexpression of the nucleotide sequence only in certain host cells (e.g.,tissue-specific regulatory sequences). A tissue-specific promoter maydirect expression primarily in a desired tissue of interest, such asmuscle, neuron, bone, skin, blood, specific organs (e.g. liver,pancreas), or particular cell types (e.g. lymphocytes). Regulatoryelements may also direct expression in a temporal-dependent manner, suchas in a cell-cycle dependent or developmental stage-dependent manner,which may or may not also be tissue or cell-type specific. In someembodiments, a vector comprises one or more pol III promoter (e.g. 1, 2,3, 4, 5, or more pol III promoters), one or more pol II promoters (e.g.1, 2, 3, 4, 5, or more pol II promoters), one or more pol I promoters(e.g. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, or more pol I promoters), or combinations thereof.Examples of pol III promoters include, but are not limited to, U6 and H1promoters. Examples of pol II promoters include, but are not limited to,the retroviral Rous sarcoma virus (RSV) LTR promoter (optionally withthe RSV enhancer), the cytomegalovirus (CMV) promoter (optionally withthe CMV enhancer) [see, e.g., Boshart et al, Cell, 41:521-530 (1985)],the SV40 promoter, the dihydrofolate reductase promoter, the β-actinpromoter, the phosphoglycerol kinase (PGK) promoter, and the EF1αpromoter. Also encompassed by the term “regulatory element” are enhancerelements, such as WPRE; CMV enhancers; the R-U5′ segment in LTR ofHTLV-I (Mol. Cell. Biol., Vol. 8(1), p. 466-472, 1988); SV40 enhancer;and the intron sequence between exons 2 and 3 of rabbit β-globin (Proc.Natl. Acad. Sci. USA., Vol. 78(3), p. 1527-31, 1981). It will beappreciated by those skilled in the art that the design of theexpression vector can depend on such factors as the choice of the hostcell to be transformed, the level of expression desired, etc. A vectorcan be introduced into host cells to thereby produce transcripts,proteins, or peptides, including fusion proteins or peptides, encoded bynucleic acids as described herein (e.g., clustered regularlyinterspersed short palindromic repeats (CRISPR) transcripts, proteins,enzymes, mutant forms thereof, fusion proteins thereof, etc.). Withregards to regulatory sequences, mention is made of U.S. patentapplication Ser. No. 10/491,026, the contents of which are incorporatedby reference herein in their entirety. With regards to promoters,mention is made of PCT publication WO 2011/028929 and U.S. applicationSer. No. 12/511,940, the contents of which are incorporated by referenceherein in their entirety.

Vectors can be designed for expression of CRISPR transcripts (e.g.nucleic acid transcripts, proteins, or enzymes) in prokaryotic oreukaryotic cells. For example, CRISPR transcripts can be expressed inbacterial cells such as Escherichia coli, insect cells (usingbaculovirus expression vectors), yeast cells, or mammalian cells.Suitable host cells are discussed further in Goeddel, GENE EXPRESSIONTECHNOLOGY: METHODS IN ENZYMOLOGY 185, Academic Press, San Diego, Calif.(1990). Alternatively, the recombinant expression vector can betranscribed and translated in vitro, for example using T7 promoterregulatory sequences and T7 polymerase.

Vectors may be introduced and propagated in a prokaryote or prokaryoticcell. In some embodiments, a prokaryote is used to amplify copies of avector to be introduced into a eukaryotic cell or as an intermediatevector in the production of a vector to be introduced into a eukaryoticcell (e.g. amplifying a plasmid as part of a viral vector packagingsystem). In some embodiments, a prokaryote is used to amplify copies ofa vector and express one or more nucleic acids, such as to provide asource of one or more proteins for delivery to a host cell or hostorganism. Expression of proteins in prokaryotes is most often carriedout in Escherichia coli with vectors containing constitutive orinducible promoters directing the expression of either fusion ornon-fusion proteins. Fusion vectors add a number of amino acids to aprotein encoded therein, such as to the amino terminus of therecombinant protein. Such fusion vectors may serve one or more purposes,such as: (i) to increase expression of recombinant protein; (ii) toincrease the solubility of the recombinant protein; and (iii) to aid inthe purification of the recombinant protein by acting as a ligand inaffinity purification. Often, in fusion expression vectors, aproteolytic cleavage site is introduced at the junction of the fusionmoiety and the recombinant protein to enable separation of therecombinant protein from the fusion moiety subsequent to purification ofthe fusion protein. Such enzymes, and their cognate recognitionsequences, include Factor Xa, thrombin and enterokinase. Example fusionexpression vectors include pGEX (Pharmacia Biotech Inc; Smith andJohnson, 1988. Gene 67: 31-40), pMAL (New England Biolabs, Beverly,Mass.) and pRIT5 (Pharmacia, Piscataway, N.J.) that fuse glutathioneS-transferase (GST), maltose E binding protein, or protein A,respectively, to the target recombinant protein.

Examples of suitable inducible non-fusion E. coli expression vectorsinclude pTrc (Amrann et al., (1988) Gene 69:301-315) and pET 11d(Studier et al., GENE EXPRESSION TECHNOLOGY: METHODS IN ENZYMOLOGY 185,Academic Press, San Diego, Calif. (1990) 60-89).

In some embodiments, a vector is a yeast expression vector. Examples ofvectors for expression in yeast Saccharomyces cerivisae include pYepSecl(Baldari, et al., 1987. EMBO J. 6: 229-234), pMFa (Kuijan andHerskowitz, 1982. Cell 30: 933-943), pJRY88 (Schultz et al., 1987. Gene54: 113-123), pYES2 (Invitrogen Corporation, San Diego, Calif.), andpicZ (InVitrogen Corp, San Diego, Calif.).

In some embodiments, a vector drives protein expression in insect cellsusing baculovirus expression vectors. Baculovirus vectors available forexpression of proteins in cultured insect cells (e.g., SF9 cells)include the pAc series (Smith, et al., 1983. Mol. Cell. Biol. 3:2156-2165) and the pVL series (Lucklow and Summers, 1989. Virology 170:31-39).

In some embodiments, a vector is capable of driving expression of one ormore sequences in mammalian cells using a mammalian expression vector.Examples of mammalian expression vectors include pCDM8 (Seed, 1987.Nature 329: 840) and pMT2PC (Kaufman, et al., 1987. EMBO J. 6: 187-195).When used in mammalian cells, the expression vector's control functionsare typically provided by one or more regulatory elements. For example,commonly used promoters are derived from polyoma, adenovirus 2,cytomegalovirus, simian virus 40, and others disclosed herein and knownin the art. For other suitable expression systems for both prokaryoticand eukaryotic cells see, e.g., Chapters 16 and 17 of Sambrook, et al.,MOLECULAR CLONING: A LABORATORY MANUAL. 2nd ed., Cold Spring HarborLaboratory, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press, Cold Spring Harbor,N.Y., 1989.

In some embodiments, the recombinant mammalian expression vector iscapable of directing expression of the nucleic acid preferentially in aparticular cell type (e.g., tissue-specific regulatory elements are usedto express the nucleic acid). Tissue-specific regulatory elements areknown in the art. Non-limiting examples of suitable tissue-specificpromoters include the albumin promoter (liver-specific; Pinkert, et al.,1987. Genes Dev. 1: 268-277), lymphoid-specific promoters (Calame andEaton, 1988. Adv. Immunol. 43: 235-275), in particular promoters of Tcell receptors (Winoto and Baltimore, 1989. EMBO J. 8: 729-733) andimmunoglobulins (Baneiji, et al., 1983. Cell 33: 729-740; Queen andBaltimore, 1983. Cell 33: 741-748), neuron-specific promoters (e.g., theneurofilament promoter; Byrne and Ruddle, 1989. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci.USA 86: 5473-5477), pancreas-specific promoters (Edlund, et al., 1985.Science 230: 912-916), and mammary gland-specific promoters (e.g., milkwhey promoter; U.S. Pat. No. 4,873,316 and European ApplicationPublication No. 264,166). Developmentally-regulated promoters are alsoencompassed, e.g., the murine hox promoters (Kessel and Gruss, 1990.Science 249: 374-379) and the α-fetoprotein promoter (Campes andTilghman, 1989. Genes Dev. 3: 537-546). With regards to theseprokaryotic and eukaryotic vectors, mention is made of U.S. Pat. No.6,750,059, the contents of which are incorporated by reference herein intheir entirety. Other embodiments of the invention may relate to the useof viral vectors, with regards to which mention is made of U.S. patentapplication Ser. No. 13/092,085, the contents of which are incorporatedby reference herein in their entirety. Tissue-specific regulatoryelements are known in the art and in this regard, mention is made ofU.S. Pat. No. 7,776,321, the contents of which are incorporated byreference herein in their entirety.

Regulatory Elements

In some embodiments, a regulatory element is operably linked to one ormore elements of a CRISPR system so as to drive expression of the one ormore elements of the CRISPR system. In general, CRISPRs (ClusteredRegularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats), also known as SPIDRs(SPacer Interspersed Direct Repeats), constitute a family of DNA locithat are usually specific to a particular bacterial species. The CRISPRlocus comprises a distinct class of interspersed short sequence repeats(SSRs) that were recognized in E. coli (Ishino et al., J. Bacteriol.,169:5429-5433 [1987]; and Nakata et al., J. Bacteriol., 171:3553-3556[1989]), and associated genes. Similar interspersed SSRs have beenidentified in Haloferax mediterranei, Streptococcus pyogenes, Anabaena,and Mycobacterium tuberculosis (See, Groenen et al., Mol. Microbiol.,10:1057-1065 [1993]; Hoe et al., Emerg. Infect. Dis., 5:254-263 [1999];Masepohl et al., Biochim. Biophys. Acta 1307:26-30 [1996]; and Mojica etal., Mol. Microbiol., 17:85-93 [1995]). The CRISPR loci typically differfrom other SSRs by the structure of the repeats, which have been termedshort regularly spaced repeats (SRSRs) (Janssen et al., OMICS J. Integ.Biol., 6:23-33 [2002]; and Mojica et al., Mol. Microbiol., 36:244-246[2000]). In general, the repeats are short elements that occur inclusters that are regularly spaced by unique intervening sequences witha substantially constant length (Mojica et al., [2000], supra). Althoughthe repeat sequences are highly conserved between strains, the number ofinterspersed repeats and the sequences of the spacer regions typicallydiffer from strain to strain (van Embden et al., J. Bacteriol.,182:2393-2401 [2000]). CRISPR loci have been identified in more than 40prokaryotes (See e.g., Jansen et al., Mol. Microbiol., 43:1565-1575[2002]; and Mojica et al., [2005]) including, but not limited toAeropyrum, Pyrobaculum, Sulfolobus, Archaeoglobus, Halocarcula,Methanobacterium, Methanococcus, Methanosarcina, Methanopyrus,Pyrococcus, Picrophilus, Thermoplasma, Corynebacterium, Mycobacterium,Streptomyces, Aquifex, Porphyromonas, Chlorobium, Thermus, Bacillus,Listeria, Staphylococcus, Clostridium, Thermoanaerobacter, Mycoplasma,Fusobacterium, Azarcus, Chromobacterium, Neisseria, Nitrosomonas,Desulfovibrio, Geobacter, Myxococcus, Campylobacter, Wolinella,Acinetobacter, Erwinia, Escherichia, Legionella, Methylococcus,Pasteurella, Photobacterium, Salmonella, Xanthomonas, Yersinia,Treponema, and Thermotoga.

In general, “CRISPR system” refers collectively to transcripts and otherelements involved in the expression of or directing the activity ofCRISPR-associated (“Cas”) genes, including sequences encoding a Casgene, a tracr (trans-activating CRISPR) sequence (e.g. tracrRNA or anactive partial tracrRNA), a tracr-mate sequence (encompassing a “directrepeat” and a tracrRNA-processed partial direct repeat in the context ofan endogenous CRISPR system), a guide sequence (also referred to as a“spacer” in the context of an endogenous CRISPR system), or othersequences and transcripts from a CRISPR locus. In embodiments of theinvention the terms guide sequence and guide RNA are usedinterchangeably. In some embodiments, one or more elements of a CRISPRsystem is derived from a type I, type II, or type III CRISPR system. Insome embodiments, one or more elements of a CRISPR system is derivedfrom a particular organism comprising an endogenous CRISPR system, suchas Streptococcus pyogenes. In general, a CRISPR system is characterizedby elements that promote the formation of a CRISPR complex at the siteof a target sequence (also referred to as a protospacer in the contextof an endogenous CRISPR system). In the context of formation of a CRISPRcomplex, “target sequence” refers to a sequence to which a guidesequence is designed to have complementarity, where hybridizationbetween a target sequence and a guide sequence promotes the formation ofa CRISPR complex. A target sequence may comprise any polynucleotide,such as DNA or RNA polynucleotides. In some embodiments, a targetsequence is located in the nucleus or cytoplasm of a cell.

In some embodiments, direct repeats may be identified in silico bysearching for repetitive motifs that fulfill any or all of the followingcriteria:

1. found in a 2 Kb window of genomic sequence flanking the type IICRISPR locus;

2. span from 20 to 50 bp; and

3. interspaced by 20 to 50 bp.

In some embodiments, 2 of these criteria may be used, for instance 1 and2, 2 and 3, or 1 and 3. In some embodiments, all 3 criteria may be used.

In some embodiments, candidate tracrRNA may be subsequently predicted bysequences that fulfill any or all of the following criteria:

1. sequence homology to direct repeats (motif search in Geneious with upto 18-bp mismatches);

2. presence of a predicted Rho-independent transcriptional terminator indirection of transcription; and

3. stable hairpin secondary structure between tracrRNA and directrepeat.

In some embodiments, 2 of these criteria may be used, for instance 1 and2, 2 and 3, or 1 and 3. In some embodiments, all 3 criteria may be used.

In some embodiments, chimeric synthetic guide RNAs (sgRNAs) designs mayincorporate at least 12 bp of duplex structure between the direct repeatand tracrRNA.

In preferred embodiments of the invention, the CRISPR system is a typeII CRISPR system and the Cas enzyme is Cas9, which catalyzes DNAcleavage. Enzymatic action by Cas9 derived from Streptococcus pyogenesor any closely related Cas9 generates double stranded breaks at targetsite sequences which hybridize to 20 nucleotides of the guide sequenceand that have a protospacer-adjacent motif (PAM) sequence (examplesinclude NGG/NRG or a PAM that can be determined as described herein)following the 20 nucleotides of the target sequence. CRISPR activitythrough Cas9 for site-specific DNA recognition and cleavage is definedby the guide sequence, the tracr sequence that hybridizes in part to theguide sequence and the PAM sequence. More aspects of the CRISPR systemare described in Karginov and Hannon, The CRISPR system: smallRNA-guided defence in bacteria and archaea, Mole Cell 2010, January 15;37(1): 7.

The type II CRISPR locus from Streptococcus pyogenes SF370, whichcontains a cluster of four genes Cas9, Casl, Cas2, and Csnl, as well astwo non-coding RNA elements, tracrRNA and a characteristic array ofrepetitive sequences (direct repeats) interspaced by short stretches ofnon-repetitive sequences (spacers, about 30 bp each). In this system,targeted DNA double-strand break (DSB) is generated in four sequentialsteps (FIG. 2A). First, two non-coding RNAs, the pre-crRNA array andtracrRNA, are transcribed from the CRISPR locus. Second, tracrRNAhybridizes to the direct repeats of pre-crRNA, which is then processedinto mature crRNAs containing individual spacer sequences. Third, themature crRNA:tracrRNA complex directs Cas9 to the DNA target consistingof the protospacer and the corresponding PAM via heteroduplex formationbetween the spacer region of the crRNA and the protospacer DNA. Finally,Cas9 mediates cleavage of target DNA upstream of PAM to create a DSBwithin the protospacer (FIG. 2A). FIG. 2B demonstrates the nuclearlocalization of the codon optimized Cas9. To promote precisetranscriptional initiation, the RNA polymerase III-based U6 promoter wasselected to drive the expression of tracrRNA (FIG. 2C). Similarly, a U6promoter-based construct was developed to express a pre-crRNA arrayconsisting of a single spacer flanked by two direct repeats (DRs, alsoencompassed by the term “tracr-mate sequences”; FIG. 2C). The initialspacer was designed to target a 33-base-pair (bp) target site (30-bpprotospacer plus a 3-bp CRISPR motif (PAM) sequence satisfying the NGGrecognition motif of Cas9) in the human EMX1 locus (FIG. 2C), a key genein the development of the cerebral cortex.

Typically, in the context of an endogenous CRISPR system, formation of aCRISPR complex (comprising a guide sequence hybridized or hybridizableto a target sequence and complexed with one or more Cas proteins)results in cleavage of one or both strands in or near (e.g. within 1, 2,3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 20, 50, or more base pairs from) the targetsequence. Without wishing to be bound by theory, the tracr sequence,which may comprise or consist of all or a portion of a wild-type tracrsequence (e.g. about or more than about 20, 26, 32, 45, 48, 54, 63, 67,85, or more nucleotides of a wild-type tracr sequence), may also formpart of a CRISPR complex, such as by hybridization along at least aportion of the tracr sequence to all or a portion of a tracr matesequence that is operably linked to the guide sequence. In someembodiments, one or more vectors driving expression of one or moreelements of a CRISPR system are introduced into a host cell such thatexpression of the elements of the CRISPR system direct formation of aCRISPR complex at one or more target sites. For example, a Cas enzyme, aguide sequence linked to a tracr-mate sequence, and a tracr sequencecould each be operably linked to separate regulatory elements onseparate vectors. Alternatively, two or more of the elements expressedfrom the same or different regulatory elements, may be combined in asingle vector, with one or more additional vectors providing anycomponents of the CRISPR system not included in the first vector. CRISPRsystem elements that are combined in a single vector may be arranged inany suitable orientation, such as one element located 5′ with respect to(“upstream” of) or 3′ with respect to (“downstream” of) a secondelement. The coding sequence of one element may be located on the sameor opposite strand of the coding sequence of a second element, andoriented in the same or opposite direction. In some embodiments, asingle promoter drives expression of a transcript encoding a CRISPRenzyme and one or more of the guide sequence, tracr mate sequence(optionally operably linked to the guide sequence), and a tracr sequenceembedded within one or more intron sequences (e.g. each in a differentintron, two or more in at least one intron, or all in a single intron).In some embodiments, the CRISPR enzyme, guide sequence, tracr matesequence, and tracr sequence are operably linked to and expressed fromthe same promoter.

In some embodiments, a vector comprises one or more insertion sites,such as a restriction endonuclease recognition sequence (also referredto as a “cloning site”). In some embodiments, one or more insertionsites (e.g. about or more than about 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, ormore insertion sites) are located upstream and/or downstream of one ormore sequence elements of one or more vectors. In some embodiments, avector comprises an insertion site upstream of a tracr mate sequence,and optionally downstream of a regulatory element operably linked to thetracr mate sequence, such that following insertion of a guide sequenceinto the insertion site and upon expression the guide sequence directssequence-specific binding of a CRISPR complex to a target sequence in aeukaryotic cell. In some embodiments, a vector comprises two or moreinsertion sites, each insertion site being located between two tracrmate sequences so as to allow insertion of a guide sequence at eachsite. In such an arrangement, the two or more guide sequences maycomprise two or more copies of a single guide sequence, two or moredifferent guide sequences, or combinations of these. When multipledifferent guide sequences are used, a single expression construct may beused to target CRISPR activity to multiple different, correspondingtarget sequences within a cell. For example, a single vector maycomprise about or more than about 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 15, 20,or more guide sequences. In some embodiments, about or more than about1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, or more such guide-sequence-containingvectors may be provided, and optionally delivered to a cell.

In some embodiments, a vector comprises a regulatory element operablylinked to an enzyme-coding sequence encoding a CRISPR enzyme, such as aCas protein. Non-limiting examples of Cas proteins include Cas1, Cas1B,Cas2, Cas3, Cas4, Cas5, Cash, Cas7, Cas8, Cas9 (also known as Csn1 andCsx12), Cas10, Csy1, Csy2, Csy3, Cse1, Cse2, Csc1, Csc2, Csa5, Csn2,Csm2, Csm3, Csm4, Csm5, Csm6, Cmr1, Cmr3, Cmr4, Cmr5, Cmr6, Csb1, Csb2,Csb3, Csx17, Csx14, Csx10, Csx16, CsaX, Csx3, Csx1, Csx15, Csf1, Csf2,Csf3, Csf4, homologues thereof, or modified versions thereof. In someembodiments, the unmodified CRISPR enzyme has DNA cleavage activity,such as Cas9. In some embodiments, the CRISPR enzyme directs cleavage ofone or both strands at the location of a target sequence, such as withinthe target sequence and/or within the complement of the target sequence.In some embodiments, the CRISPR enzyme directs cleavage of one or bothstrands within about 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 15, 20, 25, 50, 100,200, 500, or more base pairs from the first or last nucleotide of atarget sequence. In some embodiments, a vector encodes a CRISPR enzymethat is mutated to with respect to a corresponding wild-type enzyme suchthat the mutated CRISPR enzyme lacks the ability to cleave one or bothstrands of a target polynucleotide containing a target sequence. Forexample, an aspartate-to-alanine substitution (D10A) in the RuvC Icatalytic domain of Cas9 from S. pyogenes converts Cas9 from a nucleasethat cleaves both strands to a nickase (cleaves a single strand). Otherexamples of mutations that render Cas9 a nickase include, withoutlimitation, H840A, N854A, and N863A. As a further example, two or morecatalytic domains of Cas9 (RuvC I, RuvC II, and RuvC III or the HNHdomain) may be mutated to produce a mutated Cas9 substantially lackingall DNA cleavage activity. In some embodiments, a D10A mutation iscombined with one or more of H840A, N854A, or N863A mutations to producea Cas9 enzyme substantially lacking all DNA cleavage activity. In someembodiments, a CRISPR enzyme is considered to substantially lack all DNAcleavage activity when the DNA cleavage activity of the mutated enzymeis less than about 25%, 10%, 5%, 1%, 0.1%, 0.01%, or lower with respectto its non-mutated form. Where the enzyme is not SpCas9, mutations maybe made at any or all residues corresponding to positions 10, 762, 840,854, 863 and/or 986 of SpCas9 (which may be ascertained for instance bystandard sequence comparison tools. In particular, any or all of thefollowing mutations are preferred in SpCas9: D10A, E762A, H840A, N854A,N863A and/or D986A; as well as conservative substitution for any of thereplacement amino acids is also envisaged. The same (or conservativesubstitutions of these mutations) at corresponding positions in otherCas9s are also preferred. Particularly preferred are D10 and H840 inSpCas9. However, in other Cas9s, residues corresponding to SpCas9 D10and H840 are also preferred.

An aspartate-to-alanine substitution (D10A) in the RuvC I catalyticdomain of SpCas9 was engineered to convert the nuclease into a nickase(SpCas9n) (see e.g. Sapranauskas et al., 2011, Nucleic Acis Research,39: 9275; Gasiunas et al., 2012, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 109:E2579),such that nicked genomic DNA undergoes the high-fidelityhomology-directed repair (HDR). Surveyor assay confirmed that SpCas9ndoes not generate indels at the EMX1 protospacer target. Co-expressionof EMX1-targeting chimeric crRNA (having the tracrRNA component as well)with SpCas9 produced indels in the target site, whereas co-expressionwith SpCas9n did not (n=3). Moreover, sequencing of 327 amplicons didnot detect any indels induced by SpCas9n. The same locus was selected totest CRISPR-mediated HR by co-transfecting HEK 293FT cells with thechimeric RNA targeting EMX1, hSpCas9 or hSpCas9n, as well as a HRtemplate to introduce a pair of restriction sites (HindIII and NheI)near the protospacer.

Preferred orthologs are described herein. A Cas enzyme may be identifiedCas9 as this can refer to the general class of enzymes that sharehomology to the biggest nuclease with multiple nuclease domains from thetype II CRISPR system. Most preferably, the Cas9 enzyme is from, or isderived from, spCas9 or saCas9. By derived, Applicants mean that thederived enzyme is largely based, in the sense of having a high degree ofsequence homology with, a wildtype enzyme, but that it has been mutated(modified) in some way as described herein.

It will be appreciated that the terms Cas and CRISPR enzyme aregenerally used herein interchangeably, unless otherwise apparent. Asmentioned above, many of the residue numberings used herein refer to theCas9 enzyme from the type II CRISPR locus in Streptococcus pyogenes.However, it will be appreciated that this invention includes many moreCas9s from other species of microbes, such as SpCas9, SaCa9, St1Cas9 andso forth.

Codon Optimization

An example of a codon optimized sequence, in this instance optimized forhumans (i.e. being optimized for expression in humans) is providedherein, see the SaCas9 human codon optimized sequence. Whilst this ispreferred, it will be appreciated that other examples are possible andcodon optimization for a host species is known.

In some embodiments, an enzyme coding sequence encoding a CRISPR enzymeis codon optimized for expression in particular cells, such aseukaryotic cells. The eukaryotic cells may be those of or derived from aparticular organism, such as a mammal, including but not limited tohuman, mouse, rat, rabbit, dog, or non-human mammal or primate. In someembodiments, processes for modifying the germ line genetic identity ofhuman beings and/or processes for modifying the genetic identity ofanimals which are likely to cause them suffering without any substantialmedical benefit to man or animal, and also animals resulting from suchprocesses, may be excluded.

In general, codon optimization refers to a process of modifying anucleic acid sequence for enhanced expression in the host cells ofinterest by replacing at least one codon (e.g. about or more than about1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 50, or more codons) of the nativesequence with codons that are more frequently or most frequently used inthe genes of that host cell while maintaining the native amino acidsequence. Various species exhibit particular bias for certain codons ofa particular amino acid. Codon bias (differences in codon usage betweenorganisms) often correlates with the efficiency of translation ofmessenger RNA (mRNA), which is in turn believed to be dependent on,among other things, the properties of the codons being translated andthe availability of particular transfer RNA (tRNA) molecules. Thepredominance of selected tRNAs in a cell is generally a reflection ofthe codons used most frequently in peptide synthesis. Accordingly, genescan be tailored for optimal gene expression in a given organism based oncodon optimization. Codon usage tables are readily available, forexample, at the “Codon Usage Database” available atwww.kazusa.orjp/codon/(visited Jul. 9, 2002), and these tables can beadapted in a number of ways. See Nakamura, Y., et al. “Codon usagetabulated from the international DNA sequence databases: status for theyear 2000” Nucl. Acids Res. 28:292 (2000). Computer algorithms for codonoptimizing a particular sequence for expression in a particular hostcell are also available, such as Gene Forge (Aptagen; Jacobus, P A), arealso available. In some embodiments, one or more codons (e.g. 1, 2, 3,4, 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 50, or more, or all codons) in a sequence encodinga CRISPR enzyme correspond to the most frequently used codon for aparticular amino acid.

Nuclear Localization Sequences (NLSs)

In some embodiments, a vector encodes a CRISPR enzyme comprising one ormore nuclear localization sequences (NLSs), such as about or more thanabout 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, or more NLSs. In some embodiments,the CRISPR enzyme comprises about or more than about 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6,7, 8, 9, 10, or more NLSs at or near the amino-terminus, about or morethan about 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, or more NLSs at or near thecarboxy-terminus, or a combination of these (e.g. one or more NLS at theamino-terminus and one or more NLS at the carboxy terminus). When morethan one NLS is present, each may be selected independently of theothers, such that a single NLS may be present in more than one copyand/or in combination with one or more other NLSs present in one or morecopies. In a preferred embodiment of the invention, the CRISPR enzymecomprises at most 6 NLSs. In some embodiments, an NLS is considered nearthe N- or C-terminus when the nearest amino acid of the NLS is withinabout 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 40, 50, or more amino acidsalong the polypeptide chain from the N- or C-terminus. Non-limitingexamples of NLSs include an NLS sequence derived from: the NLS of theSV40 virus large T-antigen, having the amino acid sequence PKKKRKV (SEQID NO: 64); the NLS from nucleoplasmin (e.g. the nucleoplasmin bipartiteNLS with the sequence KRPAATKKAGQAKKKK (SEQ ID NO: 65)); the c-myc NLShaving the amino acid sequence PAAKRVKLD (SEQ ID NO: 66) or RQRRNELKRSP(SEQ ID NO: 67); the hRNPA1 M9 NLS having the sequenceNQSSNFGPMKGGNFGGRSSGPYGGGGQYFAKPRNQGGY (SEQ ID NO: 68); the sequenceRMRIZFKNKGKDTAELRRRRVEVSVELRKAKKDEQILKRRNV (SEQ ID NO: 69) of the IBBdomain from importin-alpha; the sequences VSRKRPRP (SEQ ID NO: 70) andPPKKARED (SEQ ID NO: 71) of the myoma T protein; the sequence PQPKKKPL(SEQ ID NO: 72) of human p53; the sequence SALIKKKKKMAP (SEQ ID NO: 73)of mouse c-abl IV; the sequences DRLRR (SEQ ID NO: 74) and PKQKKRK (SEQID NO: 75) of the influenza virus NS1; the sequence RKLKKKIKKL (SEQ IDNO: 76) of the Hepatitis virus delta antigen; the sequence REKKKFLKRR(SEQ ID NO: 77) of the mouse Mx1 protein; the sequenceKRKGDEVDGVDEVAKKKSKK (SEQ ID NO: 78) of the human poly(ADP-ribose)polymerase; and the sequence RKCLQAGMNLEARKTKK (SEQ ID NO: 79) of thesteroid hormone receptors (human) glucocorticoid.

In general, the one or more NLSs are of sufficient strength to driveaccumulation of the CRISPR enzyme in a detectable amount in the nucleusof a eukaryotic cell. In general, strength of nuclear localizationactivity may derive from the number of NLSs in the CRISPR enzyme, theparticular NLS(s) used, or a combination of these factors. Detection ofaccumulation in the nucleus may be performed by any suitable technique.For example, a detectable marker may be fused to the CRISPR enzyme, suchthat location within a cell may be visualized, such as in combinationwith a means for detecting the location of the nucleus (e.g. a stainspecific for the nucleus such as DAPI). Cell nuclei may also be isolatedfrom cells, the contents of which may then be analyzed by any suitableprocess for detecting protein, such as immunohistochemistry, Westernblot, or enzyme activity assay. Accumulation in the nucleus may also bedetermined indirectly, such as by an assay for the effect of CRISPRcomplex formation (e.g. assay for DNA cleavage or mutation at the targetsequence, or assay for altered gene expression activity affected byCRISPR complex formation and/or CRISPR enzyme activity), as compared toa control no exposed to the CRISPR enzyme or complex, or exposed to aCRISPR enzyme lacking the one or more NLSs.

Guide Sequence

Particularly preferred guides are in the range of 20-22 nts, asdiscussed herein; see Example 41.

In general, a guide sequence is any polynucleotide sequence havingsufficient complementarity with a target polynucleotide sequence tohybridize with the target sequence and direct sequence-specific bindingof a CRISPR complex to the target sequence. In some embodiments, thedegree of complementarity between a guide sequence and its correspondingtarget sequence, when optimally aligned using a suitable alignmentalgorithm, is about or more than about 50%, 60%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%,95%, 97.5%, 99%, or more. Optimal alignment may be determined with theuse of any suitable algorithm for aligning sequences, non-limitingexample of which include the Smith-Waterman algorithm, theNeedleman-Wunsch algorithm, algorithms based on the Burrows-WheelerTransform (e.g. the Burrows Wheeler Aligner), ClustalW, Clustal X, BLAT,Novoalign (Novocraft Technologies; available at www.novocraft.com),ELAND (Illumina, San Diego, Calif.), SOAP (available atsoap.genomics.org.cn), and Maq (available at maq.sourceforge.net). Insome embodiments, a guide sequence is about or more than about 5, 10,11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28,29, 30, 35, 40, 45, 50, 75, or more nucleotides in length. In someembodiments, a guide sequence is less than about 75, 50, 45, 40, 35, 30,25, 20, 15, 12, or fewer nucleotides in length. The ability of a guidesequence to direct sequence-specific binding of a CRISPR complex to atarget sequence may be assessed by any suitable assay. For example, thecomponents of a CRISPR system sufficient to form a CRISPR complex,including the guide sequence to be tested, may be provided to a hostcell having the corresponding target sequence, such as by transfectionwith vectors encoding the components of the CRISPR sequence, followed byan assessment of preferential cleavage within the target sequence, suchas by Surveyor assay as described herein. Similarly, cleavage of atarget polynucleotide sequence may be evaluated in a test tube byproviding the target sequence, components of a CRISPR complex, includingthe guide sequence to be tested and a control guide sequence differentfrom the test guide sequence, and comparing binding or rate of cleavageat the target sequence between the test and control guide sequencereactions. Other assays are possible, and will occur to those skilled inthe art.

A guide sequence may be selected to target any target sequence. In someembodiments, the target sequence is a sequence within a genome of acell. Exemplary target sequences include those that are unique in thetarget genome. For example, for the S. pyogenes Cas9, a unique targetsequence in a genome may include a Cas9 target site of the formMMMMMMMMNNNNNNNNNNNNXGG where NNNNNNNNNNNNXGG (N is A, G, T, or C; and Xcan be anything) has a single occurrence in the genome. A unique targetsequence in a genome may include an S. pyogenes Cas9 target site of theform MMMMMMMMMNNNNNNNNNNNXGG where NNNNNNNNNNNXGG (N is A, G, T, or C;and X can be anything) has a single occurrence in the genome. For the S.thermophilus CRISPR1 Cas9, a unique target sequence in a genome mayinclude a Cas9 target site of the form MMMMMMMMNNNNNNNNNNNNXXAGAAW (SEQID NO: 80) where NNNNNNNNNNNNXXAGAAW (SEQ ID NO: 81) (N is A, G, T, orC; X can be anything; and W is A or T) has a single occurrence in thegenome. A unique target sequence in a genome may include an S.thermophilus CRISPR1 Cas9 target site of the formMMMMMMMMMNNNNNNNNNNNXXAGAAW (SEQ ID NO: 82) where NNNNNNNNNNNXXAGAAW(SEQ ID NO: 83) (N is A, G, T, or C; X can be anything; and W is A or T)has a single occurrence in the genome. For the S. pyogenes Cas9, aunique target sequence in a genome may include a Cas9 target site of theform MMMMMMMMNNNNNNNNNNNNXGGXG where NNNNNNNNNNNNXGGXG (N is A, G, T, orC; and X can be anything) has a single occurrence in the genome. Aunique target sequence in a genome may include an S. pyogenes Cas9target site of the form MMMMMMMMMNNNNNNNNNNNXGGXG where NNNNNNNNNNNXGGXG(N is A, G, T, or C; and X can be anything) has a single occurrence inthe genome. In each of these sequences “M” may be A, G, T, or C, andneed not be considered in identifying a sequence as unique.

In some embodiments, a guide sequence is selected to reduce the degreesecondary structure within the guide sequence. In some embodiments,about or less than about 75%, 50%, 40%, 30%, 25%, 20%, 15%, 10%, 5%, 1%,or fewer of the nucleotides of the guide sequence participate inself-complementary base pairing when optimally folded. Optimal foldingmay be determined by any suitable polynucleotide folding algorithm. Someprograms are based on calculating the minimal Gibbs free energy. Anexample of one such algorithm is mFold, as described by Zuker andStiegler (Nucleic Acids Res. 9 (1981), 133-148). Another example foldingalgorithm is the online webserver RNAfold, developed at Institute forTheoretical Chemistry at the University of Vienna, using the centroidstructure prediction algorithm (see e.g. A. R. Gruber et al., 2008, Cell106(1): 23-24; and PA Carr and GM Church, 2009, Nature Biotechnology27(12): 1151-62).

Tracr Mate Sequence

In general, a tracr mate sequence includes any sequence that hassufficient complementarity with a tracr sequence to promote one or moreof: (1) excision of a guide sequence flanked by tracr mate sequences ina cell containing the corresponding tracr sequence; and (2) formation ofa CRISPR complex at a target sequence, wherein the CRISPR complexcomprises the tracr mate sequence hybridized or hybridizable to thetracr sequence. In general, degree of complementarity is with referenceto the optimal alignment of the tracr mate sequence and tracr sequence,along the length of the shorter of the two sequences. Optimal alignmentmay be determined by any suitable alignment algorithm, and may furtheraccount for secondary structures, such as self-complementarity withineither the tracr sequence or tracr mate sequence. In some embodiments,the degree of complementarity between the tracr sequence and tracr matesequence along the length of the shorter of the two when optimallyaligned is about or more than about 25%, 30%, 40%, 50%, 60%, 70%, 80%,90%, 95%, 97.5%, 99%, or higher. In some embodiments, the tracr sequenceis about or more than about 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16,17, 18, 19, 20, 25, 30, 40, 50, or more nucleotides in length. In someembodiments, the tracr sequence and tracr mate sequence are containedwithin a single transcript, such that hybridization between the twoproduces a transcript having a secondary structure, such as a hairpin.In an embodiment of the invention, the transcript or transcribedpolynucleotide sequence has at least two or more hairpins. In preferredembodiments, the transcript has two, three, four or five hairpins. In afurther embodiment of the invention, the transcript has at most fivehairpins. In a hairpin structure the portion of the sequence 5′ of thefinal “N” and upstream of the loop corresponds to the tracr matesequence, and the portion of the sequence 3′ of the loop corresponds tothe tracr sequence Further non-limiting examples of singlepolynucleotides comprising a guide sequence, a tracr mate sequence, anda tracr sequence are as follows (listed 5′ to 3′), where “N” representsa base of a guide sequence, the first block of lower case lettersrepresent the tracr mate sequence, and the second block of lower caseletters represent the tracr sequence, and the final poly-T sequencerepresents the transcription terminator: (1)NNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNgtttttgtactctcaagatttaGAAAtaaatcttgcagaagctacaaagataaggcttcatgccgaaatcaacaccctgtcattttatggcagggtgttttcgttatttaaTTTTTT (SEQ IDNO: 84); (2)NNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNgtttttgtactctcaGAAAtgcagaagctacaaagataaggcttcatgccgaaatcaacaccctgtcattttatggcagggtgttttcgttatttaaTTTTTT (SEQ ID NO: 85);(3)NNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNgtttttgtactctcaGAAAtgcagaagctacaaagataaggcttcatgccgaaatcaacaccctgtcattttatggcagggtgtTTTTTT (SEQ ID NO: 86); (4)NNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNgttttagagctaGAAAtagcaagttaaaataaggctagtccgttatcaacttgaaaaagtggcaccgagtcggtgcTTTTTT (SEQ ID NO: 87); (5)NNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNgttttagagctaGAAATAGcaagttaaaataaggctagtccgttatcaacttgaaaaagtgTTTTTTT (SEQ ID NO: 88); and (6)NNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNgttttagagctagAAATAGcaagttaaaataaggctagtccgttatcaTTTTTTTT (SEQ ID NO: 89). In some embodiments, sequences (1) to (3) areused in combination with Cas9 from S. thermophilus CRISPR1. In someembodiments, sequences (4) to (6) are used in combination with Cas9 fromS. pyogenes. In some embodiments, the tracr sequence is a separatetranscript from a transcript comprising the tracr mate sequence.

Recombination Template

In some embodiments, a recombination template is also provided. Arecombination template may be a component of another vector as describedherein, contained in a separate vector, or provided as a separatepolynucleotide. In some embodiments, a recombination template isdesigned to serve as a template in homologous recombination, such aswithin or near a target sequence nicked or cleaved by a CRISPR enzyme asa part of a CRISPR complex. A template polynucleotide may be of anysuitable length, such as about or more than about 10, 15, 20, 25, 50,75, 100, 150, 200, 500, 1000, or more nucleotides in length. In someembodiments, the template polynucleotide is complementary to a portionof a polynucleotide comprising the target sequence. When optimallyaligned, a template polynucleotide might overlap with one or morenucleotides of a target sequences (e.g. about or more than about 1, 5,10, 15, 20, or more nucleotides). In some embodiments, when a templatesequence and a polynucleotide comprising a target sequence are optimallyaligned, the nearest nucleotide of the template polynucleotide is withinabout 1, 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 50, 75, 100, 200, 300, 400, 500, 1000, 5000,10000, or more nucleotides from the target sequence. Additionaldiscussion about the HDR pathway is herein provided; for instance, as to‘CRISPR Complexes.’

Fusion Protein

In some embodiments, the CRISPR enzyme is part of a fusion proteincomprising one or more heterologous protein domains (e.g. about or morethan about 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, or more domains in addition tothe CRISPR enzyme). A CRISPR enzyme fusion protein may comprise anyadditional protein sequence, and optionally a linker sequence betweenany two domains. Examples of protein domains that may be fused to aCRISPR enzyme include, without limitation, epitope tags, reporter genesequences, and protein domains having one or more of the followingactivities: methylase activity, demethylase activity, transcriptionactivation activity, transcription repression activity, transcriptionrelease factor activity, histone modification activity, RNA cleavageactivity and nucleic acid binding activity. Non-limiting examples ofepitope tags include histidine (His) tags, V5 tags, FLAG tags, influenzahemagglutinin (HA) tags, Myc tags, VSV-G tags, and thioredoxin (Trx)tags. Examples of reporter genes include, but are not limited to,glutathione-S-transferase (GST), horseradish peroxidase (HRP),chloramphenicol acetyltransferase (CAT) beta-galactosidase,beta-glucuronidase, luciferase, green fluorescent protein (GFP), HcRed,DsRed, cyan fluorescent protein (CFP), yellow fluorescent protein (YFP),and autofluorescent proteins including blue fluorescent protein (BFP). ACRISPR enzyme may be fused to a gene sequence encoding a protein or afragment of a protein that bind DNA molecules or bind other cellularmolecules, including but not limited to maltose binding protein (MBP),S-tag, Lex A DNA binding domain (DBD) fusions, GAL4 DNA binding domainfusions, and herpes simplex virus (HSV) BP16 protein fusions. Additionaldomains that may form part of a fusion protein comprising a CRISPRenzyme are described in US20110059502, incorporated herein by reference.In some embodiments, a tagged CRISPR enzyme is used to identify thelocation of a target sequence.

Inducible System

In some embodiments, a CRISPR enzyme may form a component of aninducible system. The inducible nature of the system would allow forspatiotemporal control of gene editing or gene expression using a formof energy. The form of energy may include but is not limited toelectromagnetic radiation, sound energy, chemical energy and thermalenergy. Examples of inducible system include tetracycline induciblepromoters (Tet-On or Tet-Off), small molecule two-hybrid transcriptionactivations systems (FKBP, ABA, etc), or light inducible systems(Phytochrome, LOV domains, or cryptochrome). In one embodiment, theCRISPR enzyme may be a part of a Light Inducible TranscriptionalEffector (LITE) to direct changes in transcriptional activity in asequence-specific manner. The components of a light may include a CRISPRenzyme, a light-responsive cytochrome heterodimer (e.g. from Arabidopsisthaliana), and a transcriptional activation/repression domain. Furtherexamples of inducible DNA binding proteins and methods for their use areprovided in U.S. 61/736,465 and U.S. 61/721,283, which is herebyincorporated by reference in its entirety.

Delivery

In some aspects, the invention provides methods comprising deliveringone or more polynucleotides, such as or one or more vectors as describedherein, one or more transcripts thereof, and/or one or proteinstranscribed therefrom, to a host cell. In some aspects, the inventionfurther provides cells produced by such methods, and animals comprisingor produced from such cells. In some embodiments, a CRISPR enzyme incombination with (and optionally complexed with) a guide sequence isdelivered to a cell. Conventional viral and non-viral based genetransfer methods can be used to introduce nucleic acids in mammaliancells or target tissues. Such methods can be used to administer nucleicacids encoding components of a CRISPR system to cells in culture, or ina host organism. Non-viral vector delivery systems include DNA plasmids,RNA (e.g. a transcript of a vector described herein), naked nucleicacid, and nucleic acid complexed with a delivery vehicle, such as aliposome. Viral vector delivery systems include DNA and RNA viruses,which have either episomal or integrated genomes after delivery to thecell. For a review of gene therapy procedures, see Anderson, Science256:808-813 (1992); Nabel & Felgner, TIBTECH 11:211-217 (1993); Mitani &Caskey, TIBTECH 11:162-166 (1993); Dillon, TIBTECH 11:167-175 (1993);Miller, Nature 357:455-460 (1992); Van Brunt, Biotechnology6(10):1149-1154 (1988); Vigne, Restorative Neurology and Neuroscience8:35-36 (1995); Kremer & Perricaudet, British Medical Bulletin51(1):31-44 (1995); Haddada et al., in Current Topics in Microbiologyand Immunology Doerfler and Bohm (eds) (1995); and Yu et al., GeneTherapy 1:13-26 (1994).

Methods of non-viral delivery of nucleic acids include lipofection,microinjection, biolistics, virosomes, liposomes, immunoliposomes,polycation or lipid:nucleic acid conjugates, naked DNA, artificialvirions, and agent-enhanced uptake of DNA. Lipofection is described ine.g., U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,049,386, 4,946,787; and 4,897,355) andlipofection reagents are sold commercially (e.g., Transfectam™ andLipofectin™). Cationic and neutral lipids that are suitable forefficient receptor-recognition lipofection of polynucleotides includethose of Felgner, WO 91/17424; WO 91/16024. Delivery can be to cells(e.g. in vitro or ex vivo administration) or target tissues (e.g. invivo administration).

The preparation of lipid:nucleic acid complexes, including targetedliposomes such as immunolipid complexes, is well known to one of skillin the art (see, e.g., Crystal, Science 270:404-410 (1995); Blaese etal., Cancer Gene Ther. 2:291-297 (1995); Behr et al., Bioconjugate Chem.5:382-389 (1994); Remy et al., Bioconjugate Chem. 5:647-654 (1994); Gaoet al., Gene Therapy 2:710-722 (1995); Ahmad et al., Cancer Res.52:4817-4820 (1992); U.S. Pat. Nos. 4,186,183, 4,217,344, 4,235,871,4,261,975, 4,485,054, 4,501,728, 4,774,085, 4,837,028, and 4,946,787).

The use of RNA or DNA viral based systems for the delivery of nucleicacids take advantage of highly evolved processes for targeting a virusto specific cells in the body and trafficking the viral payload to thenucleus. Viral vectors can be administered directly to patients (invivo) or they can be used to treat cells in vitro, and the modifiedcells may optionally be administered to patients (ex vivo). Conventionalviral based systems could include retroviral, lentivirus, adenoviral,adeno-associated and herpes simplex virus vectors for gene transfer.Integration in the host genome is possible with the retrovirus,lentivirus, and adeno-associated virus gene transfer methods, oftenresulting in long term expression of the inserted transgene.Additionally, high transduction efficiencies have been observed in manydifferent cell types and target tissues.

The tropism of a retrovirus can be altered by incorporating foreignenvelope proteins, expanding the potential target population of targetcells. Lentiviral vectors are retroviral vectors that are able totransduce or infect non-dividing cells and typically produce high viraltiters. Selection of a retroviral gene transfer system would thereforedepend on the target tissue. Retroviral vectors are comprised ofcis-acting long terminal repeats with packaging capacity for up to 6-10kb of foreign sequence. The minimum cis-acting LTRs are sufficient forreplication and packaging of the vectors, which are then used tointegrate the therapeutic gene into the target cell to provide permanenttransgene expression. Widely used retroviral vectors include those basedupon murine leukemia virus (MuLV), gibbon ape leukemia virus (GaLV),Simian Immuno deficiency virus (SIV), human immuno deficiency virus(HIV), and combinations thereof (see, e.g., Buchscher et al., J. Virol.66:2731-2739 (1992); Johann et al., J. Virol. 66:1635-1640 (1992);Sommnerfelt et al., Virol. 176:58-59 (1990); Wilson et al., J. Virol.63:2374-2378 (1989); Miller et al., J. Virol. 65:2220-2224 (1991);PCT/US94/05700).

In another embodiment, Cocal vesiculovirus envelope pseudotypedretroviral vector particles are contemplated (see, e.g., US PatentPublication No. 20120164118 assigned to the Fred Hutchinson CancerResearch Center). Cocal virus is in the Vesiculovirus genus, and is acausative agent of vesicular stomatitis in mammals. Cocal virus wasoriginally isolated from mites in Trinidad (Jonkers et al., Am. J. Vet.Res. 25:236-242 (1964)), and infections have been identified inTrinidad, Brazil, and Argentina from insects, cattle, and horses. Manyof the vesiculoviruses that infect mammals have been isolated fromnaturally infected arthropods, suggesting that they are vector-borne.Antibodies to vesiculoviruses are common among people living in ruralareas where the viruses are endemic and laboratory-acquired; infectionsin humans usually result in influenza-like symptoms. The Cocal virusenvelope glycoprotein shares 71.5% identity at the amino acid level withVSV-G Indiana, and phylogenetic comparison of the envelope gene ofvesiculoviruses shows that Cocal virus is serologically distinct from,but most closely related to, VSV-G Indiana strains among thevesiculoviruses. Jonkers et al., Am. J. Vet. Res. 25:236-242 (1964) andTravassos da Rosa et al., Am. J. Tropical Med. & Hygiene 33:999-1006(1984). The Cocal vesiculovirus envelope pseudotyped retroviral vectorparticles may include for example, lentiviral, alpharetroviral,betaretroviral, gammaretroviral, deltaretroviral, and epsilonretroviralvector particles that may comprise retroviral Gag, Pol, and/or one ormore accessory protein(s) and a Cocal vesiculovirus envelope protein.Within certain aspects of these embodiments, the Gag, Pol, and accessoryproteins are lentiviral and/or gammaretroviral.

In applications where transient expression is preferred, adenoviralbased systems may be used. Adenoviral based vectors are capable of veryhigh transduction efficiency in many cell types and do not require celldivision. With such vectors, high titer and levels of expression havebeen obtained. This vector can be produced in large quantities in arelatively simple system.

Adeno-associated virus (“AAV”) vectors may also be used to transducecells with target nucleic acids, e.g., in the in vitro production ofnucleic acids and peptides, and for in vivo and ex vivo gene therapyprocedures (see, e.g., West et al., Virology 160:38-47 (1987); U.S. Pat.No. 4,797,368; WO 93/24641; Kotin, Human Gene Therapy 5:793-801 (1994);Muzyczka, J. Clin. Invest. 94:1351 (1994). Construction of recombinantAAV vectors are described in a number of publications, including U.S.Pat. No. 5,173,414; Tratschin et al., Mol. Cell. Biol. 5:3251-3260(1985); Tratschin, et al., Mol. Cell. Biol. 4:2072-2081 (1984); Hermonat& Muzyczka, PNAS 81:6466-6470 (1984); and Samulski et al., J. Virol.63:03822-3828 (1989).

Packaging cells are typically used to form virus particles that arecapable of infecting a host cell. Such cells include 293 cells, whichpackage adenovirus, and w2 cells or PA317 cells, which packageretrovirus. Viral vectors used in gene therapy are usually generated byproducer a cell line that packages a nucleic acid vector into a viralparticle. The vectors typically contain the minimal viral sequencesrequired for packaging and subsequent integration into a host, otherviral sequences being replaced by an expression cassette for thepolynucleotide(s) to be expressed. The missing viral functions aretypically supplied in trans by the packaging cell line. For example, AAVvectors used in gene therapy typically only possess ITR sequences fromthe AAV genome which are required for packaging and integration into thehost genome. Viral DNA is packaged in a cell line, which contains ahelper plasmid encoding the other AAV genes, namely rep and cap, butlacking ITR sequences. The cell line may also infected with adenovirusas a helper. The helper virus promotes replication of the AAV vector andexpression of AAV genes from the helper plasmid. The helper plasmid isnot packaged in significant amounts due to a lack of ITR sequences.Contamination with adenovirus can be reduced by, e.g., heat treatment towhich adenovirus is more sensitive than AAV.

Accordingly, AAV is considered an ideal candidate for use as atransducing vector. Such AAV transducing vectors can comprise sufficientcis-acting functions to replicate in the presence of adenovirus orherpesvirus or poxvirus (e.g., vaccinia virus) helper functions providedin trans. Recombinant AAV (rAAV) can be used to carry exogenous genesinto cells of a variety of lineages. In these vectors, the AAV capand/or rep genes are deleted from the viral genome and replaced with aDNA segment of choice. Current AAV vectors may accommodate up to 4300bases of inserted DNA.

There are a number of ways to produce rAAV, and the invention providesrAAV and methods for preparing rAAV. For example, plasmid(s) containingor consisting essentially of the desired construct are transfected intoAAV-infected cells. In addition, a second or additional helper plasmidis cotransfected into these cells to provide the AAV rep and/or capgenes which are obligatory for replication and packaging of therecombinant viral construct. Under these conditions, the rep and/or capproteins of AAV act in trans to stimulate replication and packaging ofthe rAAV construct. Two to Three days after transfection, rAAV isharvested. Traditionally rAAV is harvested from the cells along withadenovirus. The contaminating adenovirus is then inactivated by heattreatment. In the instant invention, rAAV is advantageously harvestednot from the cells themselves, but from cell supernatant. Accordingly,in an initial aspect the invention provides for preparing rAAV, and inaddition to the foregoing, rAAV can be prepared by a method thatcomprises or consists essentially of: infecting susceptible cells with arAAV containing exogenous DNA including DNA for expression, and helpervirus (e.g., adenovirus, herpesvirus, poxvirus such as vaccinia virus)wherein the rAAV lacks functioning cap and/or rep (and the helper virus(e.g., adenovirus, herpesvirus, poxvirus such as vaccinia virus)provides the cap and/or rev function that the rAAV lacks); or infectingsusceptible cells with a rAAV containing exogenous DNA including DNA forexpression, wherein the recombinant lacks functioning cap and/or rep,and transfecting said cells with a plasmid supplying cap and/or repfunction that the rAAV lacks; or infecting susceptible cells with a rAAVcontaining exogenous DNA including DNA for expression, wherein therecombinant lacks functioning cap and/or rep, wherein said cells supplycap and/or rep function that the recombinant lacks; or transfecting thesusceptible cells with an AAV lacking functioning cap and/or rep andplasmids for inserting exogenous DNA into the recombinant so that theexogenous DNA is expressed by the recombinant and for supplying repand/or cap functions whereby transfection results in an rAAV containingthe exogenous DNA including DNA for expression that lacks functioningcap and/or rep.

The rAAV can be from an AAV as herein described, and advantageously canbe an rAAV1, rAAV2, AAV5 or rAAV having hybrid capsid which may compriseAAV1, AAV2, AAV5 or any combination thereof. One can select the AAV ofthe rAAV with regard to the cells to be targeted by the rAAV; e.g., onecan select AAV serotypes 1, 2, 5 or a hybrid capsid AAV1, AAV2, AAV5 orany combination thereof for targeting brain or neuronal cells; and onecan select AAV4 for targeting cardiac tissue.

In addition to 293 cells, other cells that can be used in the practiceof the invention and the relative infectivity of certain AAV serotypesin vitro as to these cells (see Grimm, D. et al, J. Virol. 82: 5887-5911(2008)) are as follows:

Cell Line AAV-1 AAV-2 AAV-3 AAV-4 AAV-5 AAV-6 AAV-8 AAV-9 Huh-7 13 1002.5 0.0 0.1 10 0.7 0.0 HEK293 25 100 2.5 0.1 0.1 5 0.7 0.1 HeLa 3 1002.0 0.1 6.7 1 0.2 0.1 HepG2 3 100 16.7 0.3 1.7 5 0.3 ND Hep1A 20 100 0.21.0 0.1 1 0.2 0.0 911 17 100 11 0.2 0.1 17 0.1 ND CHO 100 100 14 1.4 33350 10 1.0 COS 33 100 33 3.3 5.0 14 2.0 0.5 MeWo 10 100 20 0.3 6.7 10 1.00.2 NIH3T3 10 100 2.9 2.9 0.3 10 0.3 ND A549 14 100 20 ND 0.5 10 0.5 0.1HT1180 20 100 10 0.1 0.3 33 0.5 0.1 Monocytes 1111 100 ND ND 125 1429 NDND Immature DC 2500 100 ND ND 222 2857 ND ND Mature DC 2222 100 ND ND333 3333 ND ND

The invention provides rAAV that contains or consists essentially of anexogenous nucleic acid molecule encoding a CRISPR (Clustered RegularlyInterspaced Short Palindromic Repeats) system, e.g., a plurality ofcassettes comprising or consisting a first cassette comprising orconsisting essentially of a promoter, a nucleic acid molecule encoding aCRISPR-associated (Cas) protein (putative nuclease or helicaseproteins), e.g., Cas9 and a terminator, and a two, or more,advantageously up to the packaging size limit of the vector, e.g., intotal (including the first cassette) five, cassettes comprising orconsisting essentially of a promoter, nucleic acid molecule encodingguide RNA (gRNA) and a terminator (e.g., each cassette schematicallyrepresented as Promoter-gRNA1-terminator, Promoter-gRNA2-terminator . .. Promoter-gRNA(N)-terminator (where N is a number that can be insertedthat is at an upper limit of the packaging size limit of the vector), ortwo or more individual rAAVs, each containing one or more than onecassette of a CRISPR system, e.g., a first rAAV containing the firstcassette comprising or consisting essentially of a promoter, a nucleicacid molecule encoding Cas, e.g., Cas9 and a terminator, and a secondrAAV containing a plurality, four, cassettes comprising or consistingessentially of a promoter, nucleic acid molecule encoding guide RNA(gRNA) and a terminator (e.g., each cassette schematically representedas Promoter-gRNA1-terminator, Promoter-gRNA2-terminatorPromoter-gRNA(N)-terminator (where N is a number that can be insertedthat is at an upper limit of the packaging size limit of the vector). AsrAAV is a DNA virus, the nucleic acid molecules in the herein discussionconcerning AAV or rAAV are advantageously DNA. The promoter is in someembodiments advantageously human Synapsin I promoter (hSyn).

Additional methods for the delivery of nucleic acids to cells are knownto those skilled in the art. See, for example, US20030087817,incorporated herein by reference. See also the Kanasty reference, alsoincorporated by reference and discussed herein.

In some embodiments, a host cell is transiently or non-transientlytransfected with one or more vectors described herein. In someembodiments, a cell is transfected as it naturally occurs in a subject.In some embodiments, a cell that is transfected is taken from a subject.In some embodiments, the cell is derived from cells taken from asubject, such as a cell line. A wide variety of cell lines for tissueculture are known in the art. Examples of cell lines include, but arenot limited to, C8161, CCRF-CEM, MOLT, mIMCD-3, NHDF, HeLa-S3, Huhl,Huh4, Huh7, HUVEC, HASMC, HEKn, HEKa, MiaPaCell, Panc1, PC-3, TF1,CTLL-2, C1R, Rat6, CV1, RPTE, A10, T24, J82, A375, ARH-77, Calu1, SW480,SW620, SKOV3, SK-UT, CaCo2, P388D1, SEM-K2, WEHI-231, HB56, TIB55,Jurkat, J45.01, LRMB, Bcl-1, BC-3, IC21, DLD2, Raw264.7, NRK, NRK-52E,MRCS, MEF, Hep G2, HeLa B, HeLa T4, COS, COS-1, COS-6, COS-M6A, BS-C-1monkey kidney epithelial, BALB/3T3 mouse embryo fibroblast, 3T3 Swiss,3T3-L1, 132-d5 human fetal fibroblasts; 10.1 mouse fibroblasts, 293-T,3T3, 721, 9L, A2780, A2780ADR, A2780cis, A172, A20, A253, A431, A-549,ALC, B16, B35, BCP-1 cells, BEAS-2B, bEnd.3, BHK-21, BR 293, BxPC3,C3H-10T1/2, C6/36, Cal-27, CHO, CHO-7, CHO-IR, CHO-K1, CHO-K2, CHO-T,CHO Dhfr −/−, COR-L23, COR-L23/CPR, COR-L23/5010, COR-L23/R23, COS-7,COV-434, CML T1, CMT, CT26, D17, DH82, DU145, DuCaP, EL4, EM2, EM3,EMT6/AR1, EMT6/AR10.0, FM3, H1299, H69, HB54, HB55, HCA2, HEK-293, HeLa,Hepa1c1c7, HL-60, HMEC, HT-29, Jurkat, JY cells, K562 cells, Ku812,KCL22, KG1, KYO1, LNCap, Ma-Mel 1-48, MC-38, MCF-7, MCF-10A, MDA-MB-231,MDA-MB-468, MDA-MB-435, MDCK II, MDCK II, MOR/0.2R, MONO-MAC 6, MTD-1A,MyEnd, NCI-H69/CPR, NCI-H69/LX10, NCI-H69/LX20, NCI-H69/LX4, NIH-3T3,NALM-1, NW-145, OPCN/OPCT cell lines, Peer, PNT-1A/PNT 2, RenCa, RIN-5F,RMA/RMAS, Saos-2 cells, Sf-9, SkBr3, T2, T-47D, T84, THP1 cell line,U373, U87, U937, VCaP, Vero cells, WM39, WT-49, X63, YAC-1, YAR, andtransgenic varieties thereof. Cell lines are available from a variety ofsources known to those with skill in the art (see, e.g., the AmericanType Culture Collection (ATCC) (Manassas, Va.)). In some embodiments, acell transfected with one or more vectors described herein is used toestablish a new cell line comprising one or more vector-derivedsequences. In some embodiments, a cell transiently transfected with thecomponents of a CRISPR system as described herein (such as by transienttransfection of one or more vectors, or transfection with RNA), andmodified through the activity of a CRISPR complex, is used to establisha new cell line comprising cells containing the modification but lackingany other exogenous sequence. In some embodiments, cells transiently ornon-transiently transfected with one or more vectors described herein,or cell lines derived from such cells are used in assessing one or moretest compounds.

In some embodiments, one or more vectors described herein are used toproduce a non-human transgenic animal or transgenic plant. In someembodiments, the transgenic animal is a mammal, such as a mouse, rat, orrabbit. Methods for producing transgenic animals and plants are known inthe art, and generally begin with a method of cell transfection, such asdescribed herein.

In another embodiment, a fluid delivery device with an array of needles(see, e.g., US Patent Publication No. 20110230839 assigned to the FredHutchinson Cancer Research Center) may be contemplated for delivery ofCRISPR Cas to solid tissue. A device of US Patent Publication No.20110230839 for delivery of a fluid to a solid tissue may comprise aplurality of needles arranged in an array; a plurality of reservoirs,each in fluid communication with a respective one of the plurality ofneedles; and a plurality of actuators operatively coupled to respectiveones of the plurality of reservoirs and configured to control a fluidpressure within the reservoir. In certain embodiments each of theplurality of actuators may comprise one of a plurality of plungers, afirst end of each of the plurality of plungers being received in arespective one of the plurality of reservoirs, and in certain furtherembodiments the plungers of the plurality of plungers are operativelycoupled together at respective second ends so as to be simultaneouslydepressable. Certain still further embodiments may comprise a plungerdriver configured to depress all of the plurality of plungers at aselectively variable rate. In other embodiments each of the plurality ofactuators may comprise one of a plurality of fluid transmission lineshaving first and second ends, a first end of each of the plurality offluid transmission lines being coupled to a respective one of theplurality of reservoirs. In other embodiments the device may comprise afluid pressure source, and each of the plurality of actuators comprisesa fluid coupling between the fluid pressure source and a respective oneof the plurality of reservoirs. In further embodiments the fluidpressure source may comprise at least one of a compressor, a vacuumaccumulator, a peristaltic pump, a master cylinder, a microfluidic pump,and a valve. In another embodiment, each of the plurality of needles maycomprise a plurality of ports distributed along its length.

Modifying a Target

In one aspect, the invention provides for methods of modifying a targetpolynucleotide in a eukaryotic cell, which may be in vivo, ex vivo or invitro. In some embodiments, the method comprises sampling or biopsying acell or population of cells from a human or non-human animal, andmodifying the cell or cells. Culturing may occur at any stage ex vivo.The cell or cells may even be re-introduced into the non-human animal.For re-introduced cells it is particularly preferred that the cells arestem cells, although primary hepaoctyes are also preferred.

In some embodiments, the method comprises allowing a CRISPR complex tobind to the target polynucleotide to effect cleavage of said targetpolynucleotide thereby modifying the target polynucleotide, wherein theCRISPR complex comprises a CRISPR enzyme complexed with a guide sequencehybridized or hybridizable to a target sequence within said targetpolynucleotide, wherein said guide sequence is linked to a tracr matesequence which in turn hybridizes to a tracr sequence.

In one aspect, the invention provides a method of modifying expressionof a polynucleotide in a eukaryotic cell. In some embodiments, themethod comprises allowing a CRISPR complex to bind to the polynucleotidesuch that said binding results in increased or decreased expression ofsaid polynucleotide; wherein the CRISPR complex comprises a CRISPRenzyme complexed with a guide sequence hybridized or hybridizable to atarget sequence within said polynucleotide, wherein said guide sequenceis linked to a tracr mate sequence which in turn hybridizes to a tracrsequence. Similar considerations and conditions apply as above formethods of modifying a target polynucleotide. In fact, these sampling,culturing and re-introduction options apply across the aspects of thepresent invention.

Indeed, in any aspect of the invention, the CRISPR complex may comprisea CRISPR enzyme complexed with a guide sequence hybridized orhybridizable to a target sequence, wherein said guide sequence may belinked to a tracr mate sequence which in turn may hybridize to a tracrsequence. Similar considerations and conditions apply as above formethods of modifying a target polynucleotide.

Kits

In one aspect, the invention provides kits containing any one or more ofthe elements disclosed in the above methods and compositions. Elementsmay be provided individually or in combinations, and may be provided inany suitable container, such as a vial, a bottle, or a tube. In someembodiments, the kit includes instructions in one or more languages, forexample in more than one language.

In some embodiments, a kit comprises one or more reagents for use in aprocess utilizing one or more of the elements described herein. Reagentsmay be provided in any suitable container. For example, a kit mayprovide one or more reaction or storage buffers. Reagents may beprovided in a form that is usable in a particular assay, or in a formthat requires addition of one or more other components before use (e.g.in concentrate or lyophilized form). A buffer can be any buffer,including but not limited to a sodium carbonate buffer, a sodiumbicarbonate buffer, a borate buffer, a Tris buffer, a MOPS buffer, aHEPES buffer, and combinations thereof. In some embodiments, the bufferis alkaline. In some embodiments, the buffer has a pH from about 7 toabout 10. In some embodiments, the kit comprises one or moreoligonucleotides corresponding to a guide sequence for insertion into avector so as to operably link the guide sequence and a regulatoryelement. In some embodiments, the kit comprises a homologousrecombination template polynucleotide. In some embodiments, the kitcomprises one or more of the vectors and/or one or more of thepolynucleotides described herein. The kit may advantageously allows toprovide all elements of the systems of the invention.

CRISPR Complex

In one aspect, the invention provides methods for using one or moreelements of a CRISPR system. The CRISPR complex of the inventionprovides an effective means for modifying a target polynucleotide. TheCRISPR complex of the invention has a wide variety of utility includingmodifying (e.g., deleting, inserting, translocating, inactivating,activating) a target polynucleotide in a multiplicity of cell types. Assuch the CRISPR complex of the invention has a broad spectrum ofapplications in, e.g., gene therapy, drug screening, disease diagnosis,and prognosis. An exemplary CRISPR complex comprises a CRISPR enzymecomplexed with a guide sequence hybridized or hybridizable to a targetsequence within the target polynucleotide. The guide sequence is linkedto a tracr mate sequence, which in turn hybridizes to a tracr sequence.

In one embodiment, this invention provides a method of cleaving a targetpolynucleotide. The method comprises modifying a target polynucleotideusing a CRISPR complex that binds to the target polynucleotide andeffect cleavage of said target polynucleotide. Typically, the CRISPRcomplex of the invention, when introduced into a cell, creates a break(e.g., a single or a double strand break) in the genome sequence. Forexample, the method can be used to cleave a disease gene in a cell.

The break created by the CRISPR complex can be repaired by a repairprocesses such as the error prone non-homologous end joining (NHEJ)pathway or the high fidelity homology-directed repair (HDR) (FIG. 29).During these repair process, an exogenous polynucleotide template can beintroduced into the genome sequence. In some methods, the HDR process isused modify genome sequence. For example, an exogenous polynucleotidetemplate comprising a sequence to be integrated flanked by an upstreamsequence and a downstream sequence is introduced into a cell. Theupstream and downstream sequences share sequence similarity with eitherside of the site of integration in the chromosome.

Where desired, a donor polynucleotide can be DNA, e.g., a DNA plasmid, abacterial artificial chromosome (BAC), a yeast artificial chromosome(YAC), a viral vector, a linear piece of DNA, a PCR fragment, a nakednucleic acid, or a nucleic acid complexed with a delivery vehicle suchas a liposome or poloxamer.

The exogenous polynucleotide template comprises a sequence to beintegrated (e.g., a mutated gene). The sequence for integration may be asequence endogenous or exogenous to the cell. Examples of a sequence tobe integrated include polynucleotides encoding a protein or a non-codingRNA (e.g., a microRNA). Thus, the sequence for integration may beoperably linked to an appropriate control sequence or sequences.Alternatively, the sequence to be integrated may provide a regulatoryfunction.

The upstream and downstream sequences in the exogenous polynucleotidetemplate are selected to promote recombination between the chromosomalsequence of interest and the donor polynucleotide. The upstream sequenceis a nucleic acid sequence that shares sequence similarity with thegenome sequence upstream of the targeted site for integration.Similarly, the downstream sequence is a nucleic acid sequence thatshares sequence similarity with the chromosomal sequence downstream ofthe targeted site of integration. The upstream and downstream sequencesin the exogenous polynucleotide template can have 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%,95%, or 100% sequence identity with the targeted genome sequence.Preferably, the upstream and downstream sequences in the exogenouspolynucleotide template have about 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, 99%, or 100%sequence identity with the targeted genome sequence. In some methods,the upstream and downstream sequences in the exogenous polynucleotidetemplate have about 99% or 100% sequence identity with the targetedgenome sequence.

An upstream or downstream sequence may comprise from about 20 bp toabout 2500 bp, for example, about 50, 100, 200, 300, 400, 500, 600, 700,800, 900, 1000, 1100, 1200, 1300, 1400, 1500, 1600, 1700, 1800, 1900,2000, 2100, 2200, 2300, 2400, or 2500 bp. In some methods, the exemplaryupstream or downstream sequence have about 200 bp to about 2000 bp,about 600 bp to about 1000 bp, or more particularly about 700 bp toabout 1000 bp.

In some methods, the exogenous polynucleotide template may furthercomprise a marker. Such a marker may make it easy to screen for targetedintegrations. Examples of suitable markers include restriction sites,fluorescent proteins, or selectable markers. The exogenouspolynucleotide template of the invention can be constructed usingrecombinant techniques (see, for example, Sambrook et al., 2001 andAusubel et al., 1996).

In an exemplary method for modifying a target polynucleotide byintegrating an exogenous polynucleotide template, a double strandedbreak is introduced into the genome sequence by the CRISPR complex, thebreak is repaired via homologous recombination by an exogenouspolynucleotide template such that the template is integrated into thegenome. The presence of a double-stranded break facilitates integrationof the template.

In other embodiments, this invention provides a method of modifyingexpression of a polynucleotide in a eukaryotic cell. The methodcomprises increasing or decreasing expression of a target polynucleotideby using a CRISPR complex that binds to the polynucleotide.

In some methods, a target polynucleotide can be inactivated to effectthe modification of the expression in a cell. For example, upon thebinding of a CRISPR complex to a target sequence in a cell, the targetpolynucleotide is inactivated such that the sequence is not transcribed,the coded protein is not produced, or the sequence does not function asthe wild-type sequence does. For example, a protein or microRNA codingsequence may be inactivated such that the protein is not produced.

In some methods, a control sequence can be inactivated such that it nolonger functions as a control sequence. As used herein, “controlsequence” refers to any nucleic acid sequence that effects thetranscription, translation, or accessibility of a nucleic acid sequence.Examples of a control sequence include, a promoter, a transcriptionterminator, and an enhancer are control sequences.

The inactivated target sequence may include a deletion mutation (i.e.,deletion of one or more nucleotides), an insertion mutation (i.e.,insertion of one or more nucleotides), or a nonsense mutation (i.e.,substitution of a single nucleotide for another nucleotide such that astop codon is introduced). In some methods, the inactivation of a targetsequence results in “knock-out” of the target sequence.

Disease Models

A method of the invention may be used to create an animal or cell thatmay be used as a disease model. As used herein, “disease” refers to adisease, disorder, or indication in a subject. For example, a method ofthe invention may be used to create an animal or cell that comprises amodification in one or more nucleic acid sequences associated with adisease, or a plant, animal or cell in which the expression of one ormore nucleic acid sequences associated with a disease are altered. Sucha nucleic acid sequence may encode a disease associated protein sequenceor may be a disease associated control sequence. Accordingly, it isunderstood that in embodiments of the invention, a plant, subject,patient, organism or cell can be a non-human subject, patient, organismor cell. Thus, the invention provides ananimal or cell, produced by thepresent methods, or a progeny thereof. The progeny may be a clone of theproduced animal, or may result from sexual reproduction by crossing withother individuals of the same species to introgress further desirabletraits into their offspring. The cell may be in vivo or ex vivo in thecases of multicellular organisms, particularly animals. In the instancewhere the cell is in cultured, a cell line may be established ifappropriate culturing conditions are met and preferably if the cell issuitably adapted for this purpose (for instance a stem cell). Hence,cell lines are also envisaged.

In some methods, the disease model can be used to study the effects ofmutations on the animal or cell and development and/or progression ofthe disease using measures commonly used in the study of the disease.Alternatively, such a disease model is useful for studying the effect ofa pharmaceutically active compound on the disease.

In some methods, the disease model can be used to assess the efficacy ofa potential gene therapy strategy. That is, a disease-associated gene orpolynucleotide can be modified such that the disease development and/orprogression is inhibited or reduced. In particular, the method comprisesmodifying a disease-associated gene or polynucleotide such that analtered protein is produced and, as a result, the animal or cell has analtered response. Accordingly, in some methods, a genetically modifiedanimal may be compared with an animal predisposed to development of thedisease such that the effect of the gene therapy event may be assessed.

In another embodiment, this invention provides a method of developing abiologically active agent that modulates a cell signaling eventassociated with a disease gene. The method comprises contacting a testcompound with a cell comprising one or more vectors that driveexpression of one or more of a CRISPR enzyme, a guide sequence linked toa tracr mate sequence, and a tracr sequence; and detecting a change in areadout that is indicative of a reduction or an augmentation of a cellsignaling event associated with, e.g., a mutation in a disease genecontained in the cell.

A cell model, including an organoid or cell collection as describedherein, or animal model can be constructed in combination with themethod of the invention for screening a cellular function change. Such amodel may be used to study the effects of a genome sequence modified bythe CRISPR complex of the invention on a cellular function of interest.For example, a cellular function model may be used to study the effectof a modified genome sequence on intracellular signaling orextracellular signaling. Alternatively, a cellular function model may beused to study the effects of a modified genome sequence on sensoryperception. In some such models, one or more genome sequences associatedwith a signaling biochemical pathway in the model are modified.

Several disease models have been specifically investigated. Theseinclude de novo autism risk genes CHD8, KATNAL2, and SCN2A; and thesyndromic autism (Angelman Syndrome) gene UBE3A. These genes andresulting autism models are of course preferred, but serve to show thebroad applicability of the invention across genes and correspondingmodels.

An altered expression of one or more genome sequences associated with asignaling biochemical pathway can be determined by assaying for adifference in the mRNA levels of the corresponding genes between thetest model cell and a control cell, when they are contacted with acandidate agent. Alternatively, the differential expression of thesequences associated with a signaling biochemical pathway is determinedby detecting a difference in the level of the encoded polypeptide orgene product.

To assay for an agent-induced alteration in the level of mRNAtranscripts or corresponding polynucleotides, nucleic acid contained ina sample is first extracted according to standard methods in the art.For instance, mRNA can be isolated using various lytic enzymes orchemical solutions according to the procedures set forth in Sambrook etal. (1989), or extracted by nucleic-acid-binding resins following theaccompanying instructions provided by the manufacturers. The mRNAcontained in the extracted nucleic acid sample is then detected byamplification procedures or conventional hybridization assays (e.g.Northern blot analysis) according to methods widely known in the art orbased on the methods exemplified herein.

For purpose of this invention, amplification means any method employinga primer and a polymerase capable of replicating a target sequence withreasonable fidelity. Amplification may be carried out by natural orrecombinant DNA polymerases such as TaqGold™, T7 DNA polymerase, Klenowfragment of E. coli DNA polymerase, and reverse transcriptase. Apreferred amplification method is PCR. In particular, the isolated RNAcan be subjected to a reverse transcription assay that is coupled with aquantitative polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) in order to quantify theexpression level of a sequence associated with a signaling biochemicalpathway.

Detection of the gene expression level can be conducted in real time inan amplification assay. In one aspect, the amplified products can bedirectly visualized with fluorescent DNA-binding agents including butnot limited to DNA intercalators and DNA groove binders. Because theamount of the intercalators incorporated into the double-stranded DNAmolecules is typically proportional to the amount of the amplified DNAproducts, one can conveniently determine the amount of the amplifiedproducts by quantifying the fluorescence of the intercalated dye usingconventional optical systems in the art. DNA-binding dye suitable forthis application include SYBR green, SYBR blue, DAPI, propidium iodine,Hoeste, SYBR gold, ethidium bromide, acridines, proflavine, acridineorange, acriflavine, fluorcoumanin, ellipticine, daunomycin,chloroquine, distamycin D, chromomycin, homidium, mithramycin, rutheniumpolypyridyls, anthramycin, and the like.

In another aspect, other fluorescent labels such as sequence specificprobes can be employed in the amplification reaction to facilitate thedetection and quantification of the amplified products. Probe-basedquantitative amplification relies on the sequence-specific detection ofa desired amplified product. It utilizes fluorescent, target-specificprobes (e.g., TaqMan® probes) resulting in increased specificity andsensitivity. Methods for performing probe-based quantitativeamplification are well established in the art and are taught in U.S.Pat. No. 5,210,015.

In yet another aspect, conventional hybridization assays usinghybridization probes that share sequence homology with sequencesassociated with a signaling biochemical pathway can be performed.Typically, probes are allowed to form stable complexes with thesequences associated with a signaling biochemical pathway containedwithin the biological sample derived from the test subject in ahybridization reaction. It will be appreciated by one of skill in theart that where antisense is used as the probe nucleic acid, the targetpolynucleotides provided in the sample are chosen to be complementary tosequences of the antisense nucleic acids. Conversely, where thenucleotide probe is a sense nucleic acid, the target polynucleotide isselected to be complementary to sequences of the sense nucleic acid.

Hybridization can be performed under conditions of various stringency.Suitable hybridization conditions for the practice of the presentinvention are such that the recognition interaction between the probeand sequences associated with a signaling biochemical pathway is bothsufficiently specific and sufficiently stable. Conditions that increasethe stringency of a hybridization reaction are widely known andpublished in the art. See, for example, (Sambrook, et al., (1989);Nonradioactive In Situ Hybridization Application Manual, BoehringerMannheim, second edition). The hybridization assay can be formed usingprobes immobilized on any solid support, including but are not limitedto nitrocellulose, glass, silicon, and a variety of gene arrays. Apreferred hybridization assay is conducted on high-density gene chips asdescribed in U.S. Pat. No. 5,445,934.

For a convenient detection of the probe-target complexes formed duringthe hybridization assay, the nucleotide probes are conjugated to adetectable label. Detectable labels suitable for use in the presentinvention include any composition detectable by photochemical,biochemical, spectroscopic, immunochemical, electrical, optical orchemical means. A wide variety of appropriate detectable labels areknown in the art, which include fluorescent or chemiluminescent labels,radioactive isotope labels, enzymatic or other ligands. In preferredembodiments, one will likely desire to employ a fluorescent label or anenzyme tag, such as digoxigenin, ß-galactosidase, urease, alkalinephosphatase or peroxidase, avidin/biotin complex.

The detection methods used to detect or quantify the hybridizationintensity will typically depend upon the label selected above. Forexample, radiolabels may be detected using photographic film or aphosphoimager. Fluorescent markers may be detected and quantified usinga photodetector to detect emitted light. Enzymatic labels are typicallydetected by providing the enzyme with a substrate and measuring thereaction product produced by the action of the enzyme on the substrate;and finally colorimetric labels are detected by simply visualizing thecolored label.

An agent-induced change in expression of sequences associated with asignaling biochemical pathway can also be determined by examining thecorresponding gene products. Determining the protein level typicallyinvolves a) contacting the protein contained in a biological sample withan agent that specifically bind to a protein associated with a signalingbiochemical pathway; and (b) identifying any agent:protein complex soformed. In one aspect of this embodiment, the agent that specificallybinds a protein associated with a signaling biochemical pathway is anantibody, preferably a monoclonal antibody.

The reaction is performed by contacting the agent with a sample of theproteins associated with a signaling biochemical pathway derived fromthe test samples under conditions that will allow a complex to formbetween the agent and the proteins associated with a signalingbiochemical pathway. The formation of the complex can be detecteddirectly or indirectly according to standard procedures in the art. Inthe direct detection method, the agents are supplied with a detectablelabel and unreacted agents may be removed from the complex; the amountof remaining label thereby indicating the amount of complex formed. Forsuch method, it is preferable to select labels that remain attached tothe agents even during stringent washing conditions. It is preferablethat the label does not interfere with the binding reaction. In thealternative, an indirect detection procedure may use an agent thatcontains a label introduced either chemically or enzymatically. Adesirable label generally does not interfere with binding or thestability of the resulting agent:polypeptide complex. However, the labelis typically designed to be accessible to an antibody for an effectivebinding and hence generating a detectable signal.

A wide variety of labels suitable for detecting protein levels are knownin the art. Non-limiting examples include radioisotopes, enzymes,colloidal metals, fluorescent compounds, bioluminescent compounds, andchemiluminescent compounds.

The amount of agent:polypeptide complexes formed during the bindingreaction can be quantified by standard quantitative assays. Asillustrated above, the formation of agent:polypeptide complex can bemeasured directly by the amount of label remained at the site ofbinding. In an alternative, the protein associated with a signalingbiochemical pathway is tested for its ability to compete with a labeledanalog for binding sites on the specific agent. In this competitiveassay, the amount of label captured is inversely proportional to theamount of protein sequences associated with a signaling biochemicalpathway present in a test sample.

A number of techniques for protein analysis based on the generalprinciples outlined above are available in the art. They include but arenot limited to radioimmunoassays, ELISA (enzyme linked immunoradiometricassays), “sandwich” immunoassays, immunoradiometric assays, in situimmunoassays (using e.g., colloidal gold, enzyme or radioisotopelabels), western blot analysis, immunoprecipitation assays,immunofluorescent assays, and SDS-PAGE.

Antibodies that specifically recognize or bind to proteins associatedwith a signaling biochemical pathway are preferable for conducting theaforementioned protein analyses. Where desired, antibodies thatrecognize a specific type of post-translational modifications (e.g.,signaling biochemical pathway inducible modifications) can be used.Post-translational modifications include but are not limited toglycosylation, lipidation, acetylation, and phosphorylation. Theseantibodies may be purchased from commercial vendors. For example,anti-phosphotyrosine antibodies that specifically recognizetyrosine-phosphorylated proteins are available from a number of vendorsincluding Invitrogen and Perkin Elmer. Anti-phosphotyrosine antibodiesare particularly useful in detecting proteins that are differentiallyphosphorylated on their tyrosine residues in response to an ER stress.Such proteins include but are not limited to eukaryotic translationinitiation factor 2 alpha (eIF-2a). Alternatively, these antibodies canbe generated using conventional polyclonal or monoclonal antibodytechnologies by immunizing a host animal or an antibody-producing cellwith a target protein that exhibits the desired post-translationalmodification.

In practicing the subject method, it may be desirable to discern theexpression pattern of an protein associated with a signaling biochemicalpathway in different bodily tissue, in different cell types, and/or indifferent subcellular structures. These studies can be performed withthe use of tissue-specific, cell-specific or subcellular structurespecific antibodies capable of binding to protein markers that arepreferentially expressed in certain tissues, cell types, or subcellularstructures.

An altered expression of a gene associated with a signaling biochemicalpathway can also be determined by examining a change in activity of thegene product relative to a control cell. The assay for an agent-inducedchange in the activity of a protein associated with a signalingbiochemical pathway will dependent on the biological activity and/or thesignal transduction pathway that is under investigation. For example,where the protein is a kinase, a change in its ability to phosphorylatethe downstream substrate(s) can be determined by a variety of assaysknown in the art. Representative assays include but are not limited toimmunoblotting and immunoprecipitation with antibodies such asanti-phosphotyrosine antibodies that recognize phosphorylated proteins.In addition, kinase activity can be detected by high throughputchemiluminescent assays such as AlphaScreen™ (available from PerkinElmer) and eTag™ assay (Chan-Hui, et al. (2003) Clinical Immunology 111:162-174).

Where the protein associated with a signaling biochemical pathway ispart of a signaling cascade leading to a fluctuation of intracellular pHcondition, pH sensitive molecules such as fluorescent pH dyes can beused as the reporter molecules. In another example where the proteinassociated with a signaling biochemical pathway is an ion channel,fluctuations in membrane potential and/or intracellular ionconcentration can be monitored. A number of commercial kits andhigh-throughput devices are particularly suited for a rapid and robustscreening for modulators of ion channels. Representative instrumentsinclude FLIPR™ (Molecular Devices, Inc.) and VIPR (Aurora Biosciences).These instruments are capable of detecting reactions in over 1000 samplewells of a microplate simultaneously, and providing real-timemeasurement and functional data within a second or even a minisecond.

In practicing any of the methods disclosed herein, a suitable vector canbe introduced to a cell or an embryo via one or more methods known inthe art, including without limitation, microinjection, electroporation,sonoporation, biolistics, calcium phosphate-mediated transfection,cationic transfection, liposome transfection, dendrimer transfection,heat shock transfection, nucleofection transfection, magnetofection,lipofection, impalefection, optical transfection, proprietaryagent-enhanced uptake of nucleic acids, and delivery via liposomes,immunoliposomes, virosomes, or artificial virions. In some methods, thevector is introduced into an embryo by microinjection. The vector orvectors may be microinjected into the nucleus or the cytoplasm of theembryo. In some methods, the vector or vectors may be introduced into acell by nucleofection.

The target polynucleotide of a CRISPR complex can be any polynucleotideendogenous or exogenous to the eukaryotic cell. For example, the targetpolynucleotide can be a polynucleotide residing in the nucleus of theeukaryotic cell. The target polynucleotide can be a sequence coding agene product (e.g., a protein) or a non-coding sequence (e.g., aregulatory polynucleotide or a junk DNA).

Examples of target polynucleotides include a sequence associated with asignaling biochemical pathway, e.g., a signaling biochemicalpathway-associated gene or polynucleotide. Examples of targetpolynucleotides include a disease associated gene or polynucleotide. A“disease-associated” gene or polynucleotide refers to any gene orpolynucleotide which is yielding transcription or translation productsat an abnormal level or in an abnormal form in cells derived from adisease-affected tissues compared with tissues or cells of a non diseasecontrol. It may be a gene that becomes expressed at an abnormally highlevel; it may be a gene that becomes expressed at an abnormally lowlevel, where the altered expression correlates with the occurrenceand/or progression of the disease. A disease-associated gene also refersto a gene possessing mutation(s) or genetic variation that is directlyresponsible or is in linkage disequilibrium with a gene(s) that isresponsible for the etiology of a disease. The transcribed or translatedproducts may be known or unknown, and may be at a normal or abnormallevel.

The target polynucleotide of a CRISPR complex can be any polynucleotideendogenous or exogenous to the eukaryotic cell. For example, the targetpolynucleotide can be a polynucleotide residing in the nucleus of theeukaryotic cell. The target polynucleotide can be a sequence coding agene product (e.g., a protein) or a non-coding sequence (e.g., aregulatory polynucleotide or a junk DNA). Without wishing to be bound bytheory, it is believed that the target sequence should be associatedwith a PAM (protospacer adjacent motif); that is, a short sequencerecognized by the CRISPR complex. The precise sequence and lengthrequirements for the PAM differ depending on the CRISPR enzyme used, butPAMs are typically 2-5 base pair sequences adjacent the protospacer(that is, the target sequence) Examples of PAM sequences are given inthe examples section below, and the skilled person will be able toidentify further PAM sequences for use with a given CRISPR enzyme.

The target polynucleotide of a CRISPR complex may include a number ofdisease-associated genes and polynucleotides as well as signalingbiochemical pathway-associated genes and polynucleotides as listed inU.S. provisional patent applications 61/736,527 and 61/748,427 havingBroad reference BI-2011/008/WSGR Docket No. 44063-701.101 andBI-2011/008/WSGR Docket No. 44063-701.102 respectively, both entitledSYSTEMS METHODS AND COMPOSITIONS FOR SEQUENCE MANIPULATION filed on Dec.12, 2012 and Jan. 2, 2013, respectively, the contents of all of whichare herein incorporated by reference in their entirety.

Examples of target polynucleotides include a sequence associated with asignaling biochemical pathway, e.g., a signaling biochemicalpathway-associated gene or polynucleotide. Examples of targetpolynucleotides include a disease associated gene or polynucleotide. A“disease-associated” gene or polynucleotide refers to any gene orpolynucleotide which is yielding transcription or translation productsat an abnormal level or in an abnormal form in cells derived from adisease-affected tissues compared with tissues or cells of a non diseasecontrol. It may be a gene that becomes expressed at an abnormally highlevel; it may be a gene that becomes expressed at an abnormally lowlevel, where the altered expression correlates with the occurrenceand/or progression of the disease. A disease-associated gene also refersto a gene possessing mutation(s) or genetic variation that is directlyresponsible or is in linkage disequilibrium with a gene(s) that isresponsible for the etiology of a disease. The transcribed or translatedproducts may be known or unknown, and may be at a normal or abnormallevel.

Examples of disease-associated genes and polynucleotides are listed inTables A and B. Disease specific information is available fromMcKusick-Nathans Institute of Genetic Medicine, Johns Hopkins University(Baltimore, Md.) and National Center for Biotechnology Information,National Library of Medicine (Bethesda, Md.), available on the WorldWide Web. Examples of signaling biochemical pathway-associated genes andpolynucleotides are listed in Table C.

Mutations in these genes and pathways can result in production ofimproper proteins or proteins in improper amounts which affect function.Further examples of genes, diseases and proteins are hereby incorporatedby reference from U.S. Provisional application 61/736,527 filed Dec. 12,2012. Such genes, proteins and pathways may be the target polynucleotideof a CRISPR complex.

TABLE A DISEASE/DISORDERS GENE(S) Neoplasia PTEN; ATM; ATR; EGFR; ERBB2;ERBB3; ERBB4; Notch1; Notch2; Notch3; Notch4; AKT; AKT2; AKT3; HIF;HIF1a; HIF3a; Met; HRG; Bcl2; PPAR alpha; PPAR gamma; WT1 (Wilms Tumor);FGF Receptor Family members (5 members: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5); CDKN2a; APC; RB(retinoblastoma); MEN1; VHL; BRCA1; BRCA2; AR (Androgen Receptor);TSG101; IGF; IGF Receptor; Igf1 (4 variants); Igf2 (3 variants); Igf 1Receptor; Igf 2 Receptor; Bax; Bcl2; caspases family (9 members: 1, 2,3, 4, 6, 7, 8, 9, 12); Kras; Apc Age-related Macular Abcr; Ccl2; Cc2; cp(ceruloplasmin); Timp3; cathepsinD; Degeneration Vldlr; Ccr2Schizophrenia Neuregulin1 (Nrg1); Erb4 (receptor for Neuregulin);Complexin1 (Cplx1); Tph1 Tryptophan hydroxylase; Tph2 Tryptophanhydroxylase 2; Neurexin 1; GSK3; GSK3a; GSK3b Disorders 5-HTT (Slc6a4);COMT; DRD (Drd1a); SLC6A3; DAOA; DTNBP1; Dao (Dao1) Trinucleotide RepeatHTT (Huntington's Dx); SBMA/SMAX1/AR (Kennedy's Disorders Dx); FXN/X25(Friedrich's Ataxia); ATX3 (Machado- Joseph's Dx); ATXN1 and ATXN2(spinocerebellar ataxias); DMPK (myotonic dystrophy); Atrophin-1 andAtn1 (DRPLA Dx); CBP (Creb-BP - global instability); VLDLR(Alzheimer's); Atxn7; Atxn10 Fragile X Syndrome FMR2; FXR1; FXR2; mGLUR5Secretase Related APH-1 (alpha and beta); Presenilin (Psen1); nicastrinDisorders (Ncstn); PEN-2 Others Nos1; Parp1; Nat1; Nat2 Prion - relateddisorders Prp ALS SOD1; ALS2; STEX; FUS; TARDBP; VEGF (VEGF-a; VEGF-b;VEGF-c) Drug addiction Prkce (alcohol); Drd2; Drd4; ABAT (alcohol);GRIA2; Grm5; Grin1; Htr1b; Grin2a; Drd3; Pdyn; Gria1 (alcohol) AutismMecp2; BZRAP1; MDGA2; Sema5A; Neurexin 1; Fragile X (FMR2 (AFF2); FXR1;FXR2; Mglur5) Alzheimer's Disease E1; CHIP; UCH; UBB; Tau; LRP; PICALM;Clusterin; PS1; SORL1; CR1; Vldlr; Uba1; Uba3; CHIP28 (Aqp1, Aquaporin1); Uchl1; Uchl3; APP Inflammation IL-10; IL-1 (IL-1a; IL-1b); IL-13;IL-17 (IL-17a (CTLA8); IL- 17b; IL-17c; IL-17d; IL-17f); II-23; Cx3cr1;ptpn22; TNFa; NOD2/CARD15 for IBD; IL-6; IL-12 (IL-12a; IL-12b); CTLA4;Cx3cl1 Parkinson's Disease x-Synuclein; DJ-1; LRRK2; Parkin; PINK1

TABLE B Blood and Anemia (CDAN1, CDA1, RPS19, DBA, PKLR, PK1, NT5C3,UMPH1, coagulation diseases PSN1, RHAG, RH50A, NRAMP2, SPTB, ALAS2,ANH1, ASB, and disorders ABCB7, ABC7, ASAT); Bare lymphocyte syndrome(TAPBP, TPSN, TAP2, ABCB3, PSF2, RING11, MHC2TA, C2TA, RFX5, RFXAP,RFX5), Bleeding disorders (TBXA2R, P2RX1, P2X1); Factor H and factorH-like 1 (HF1, CFH, HUS); Factor V and factor VIII (MCFD2); Factor VIIdeficiency (F7); Factor X deficiency (F10); Factor XI deficiency (F11);Factor XII deficiency (F12, HAF); Factor XIIIA deficiency (F13A1, F13A);Factor XIIIB deficiency (F13B); Fanconi anemia (FANCA, FACA, FA1, FA,FAA, FAAP95, FAAP90, FLJ34064, FANCB, FANCC, FACC, BRCA2, FANCD1,FANCD2, FANCD, FACD, FAD, FANCE, FACE, FANCF, XRCC9, FANCG, BRIP1,BACH1, FANCJ, PHF9, FANCL, FANCM, KIAA1596); Hemophagocyticlymphohistiocytosis disorders (PRF1, HPLH2, UNC13D, MUNC13-4, HPLH3,HLH3, FHL3); Hemophilia A (F8, F8C, HEMA); Hemophilia B (F9, HEMB),Hemorrhagic disorders (PI, ATT, F5); Leukocyde deficiencies anddisorders (ITGB2, CD18, LCAMB, LAD, EIF2B1, EIF2BA, EIF2B2, EIF2B3,EIF2B5, LVWM, CACH, CLE, EIF2B4); Sickle cell anemia (HBB); Thalassemia(HBA2, HBB, HBD, LCRB, HBA1). Cell dysregulation B-cell non-Hodgkinlymphoma (BCL7A, BCL7); Leukemia (TAL1, and oncology TCL5, SCL, TAL2,FLT3, NBS1, NBS, ZNFN1A1, IK1, LYF1, diseases and disorders HOXD4,HOX4B, BCR, CML, PHL, ALL, ARNT, KRAS2, RASK2, GMPS, AF10, ARHGEF12,LARG, KIAA0382, CALM, CLTH, CEBPA, CEBP, CHIC2, BTL, FLT3, KIT, PBT,LPP, NPM1, NUP214, D9S46E, CAN, CAIN, RUNX1, CBFA2, AML1, WHSC1L1, NSD3,FLT3, AF1Q, NPM1, NUMA1, ZNF145, PLZF, PML, MYL, STAT5B, AF10, CALM,CLTH, ARL11, ARLTS1, P2RX7, P2X7, BCR, CML, PHL, ALL, GRAF, NF1, VRNF,WSS, NFNS, PTPN11, PTP2C, SHP2, NS1, BCL2, CCND1, PRAD1, BCL1, TCRA,GATA1, GF1, ERYF1, NFE1, ABL1, NQO1, DIA4, NMOR1, NUP214, D9S46E, CAN,CAIN). Inflammation and AIDS (KIR3DL1, NKAT3, NKB1, AMB11, KIR3DS1,IFNG, CXCL12, immune related SDF1); Autoimmune lymphoproliferativesyndrome (TNFRSF6, APT1, diseases and disorders FAS, CD95, ALPS1A);Combined immunodeficiency, (IL2RG, SCIDX1, SCIDX, IMD4); HIV-1 (CCL5,SCYA5, D17S136E, TCP228), HIV susceptibility or infection (IL10, CSIF,CMKBR2, CCR2, CMKBR5, CCCKR5 (CCR5)); Immunodeficiencies (CD3E, CD3G,AICDA, AID, HIGM2, TNFRSF5, CD40, UNG, DGU, HIGM4, TNFSF5, CD40LG,HIGM1, IGM, FOXP3, IPEX, AIID, XPID, PIDX, TNFRSF14B, TACI);Inflammation (IL-10, IL-1 (IL-1a, IL-1b), IL-13, IL-17 (IL-17a (CTLA8),IL-17b, IL-17c, IL-17d, IL-17f), II-23, Cx3cr1, ptpn22, TNFa,NOD2/CARD15 for IBD, IL-6, IL-12 (IL-12a, IL-12b), CTLA4, Cx3cl1);Severe combined immunodeficiencies (SCIDs)(JAK3, JAKL, DCLRE1C, ARTEMIS,SCIDA, RAG1, RAG2, ADA, PTPRC, CD45, LCA, IL7R, CD3D, T3D, IL2RG,SCIDX1, SCIDX, IMD4). Metabolic, liver, Amyloid neuropathy (TTR, PALB);Amyloidosis (APOA1, APP, AAA, kidney and protein CVAP, AD1, GSN, FGA,LYZ, TTR, PALB); Cirrhosis (KRT18, KRT8, diseases and disorders CIRH1A,NAIC, TEX292, KIAA1988); Cystic fibrosis (CFTR, ABCC7, CF, MRP7);Glycogen storage diseases (SLC2A2, GLUT2, G6PC, G6PT, G6PT1, GAA, LAMP2,LAMPB, AGL, GDE, GBE1, GYS2, PYGL, PFKM); Hepatic adenoma, 142330 (TCF1,HNF1A, MODY3), Hepatic failure, early onset, and neurologic disorder(SCOD1, SCO1), Hepatic lipase deficiency (LIPC), Hepatoblastoma, cancerand carcinomas (CTNNB1, PDGFRL, PDGRL, PRLTS, AXIN1, AXIN, CTNNB1, TP53,P53, LFS1, IGF2R, MPRI, MET, CASP8, MCH5; Medullary cystic kidneydisease (UMOD, HNFJ, FJHN, MCKD2, ADMCKD2); Phenylketonuria (PAH, PKU1,QDPR, DHPR, PTS); Polycystic kidney and hepatic disease (FCYT, PKHD1,ARPKD, PKD1, PKD2, PKD4, PKDTS, PRKCSH, G19P1, PCLD, SEC63).

TABLE C CELLULAR FUNCTION GENES PI3K/AKT Signaling PRKCE; ITGAM; ITGA5;IRAK1; PRKAA2; EIF2AK2; PTEN; EIF4E; PRKCZ; GRK6; MAPK1; TSC1; PLK1;AKT2; IKBKB; PIK3CA; CDK8; CDKN1B; NFKB2; BCL2; PIK3CB; PPP2R1A; MAPK8;BCL2L1; MAPK3; TSC2; ITGA1; KRAS; EIF4EBP1; RELA; PRKCD; NOS3; PRKAA1;MAPK9; CDK2; PPP2CA; PIM1; ITGB7; YWHAZ; ILK; TP53; RAF1; IKBKG; RELB;DYRK1A; CDKN1A; ITGB1; MAP2K2; JAK1; AKT1; JAK2; PIK3R1; CHUK; PDPK1;PPP2R5C; CTNNB1; MAP2K1; NFKB1; PAK3; ITGB3; CCND1; GSK3A; FRAP1; SFN;ITGA2; TTK; CSNK1A1; BRAF; GSK3B; AKT3; FOXO1; SGK; HSP90AA1; RPS6KB1ERK/MAPK Signaling PRKCE; ITGAM; ITGA5; HSPB1; IRAK1; PRKAA2; EIF2AK2;RAC1; RAP1A; TLN1; EIF4E; ELK1; GRK6; MAPK1; RAC2; PLK1; AKT2; PIK3CA;CDK8; CREB1; PRKCI; PTK2; FOS; RPS6KA4; PIK3CB; PPP2R1A; PIK3C3; MAPK8;MAPK3; ITGA1; ETS1; KRAS; MYCN; EIF4EBP1; PPARG; PRKCD; PRKAA1; MAPK9;SRC; CDK2; PPP2CA; PIM1; PIK3C2A; ITGB7; YWHAZ; PPP1CC; KSR1; PXN; RAF1;FYN; DYRK1A; ITGB1; MAP2K2; PAK4; PIK3R1; STAT3; PPP2R5C; MAP2K1; PAK3;ITGB3; ESR1; ITGA2; MYC; TTK; CSNK1A1; CRKL; BRAF; ATF4; PRKCA; SRF;STAT1; SGK Glucocorticoid Receptor RAC1; TAF4B; EP300; SMAD2; TRAF6;PCAF; ELK1; Signaling MAPK1; SMAD3; AKT2; IKBKB; NCOR2; UBE2I; PIK3CA;CREB1; FOS; HSPA5; NFKB2; BCL2; MAP3K14; STAT5B; PIK3CB; PIK3C3; MAPK8;BCL2L1; MAPK3; TSC22D3; MAPK10; NRIP1; KRAS; MAPK13; RELA; STAT5A;MAPK9; NOS2A; PBX1; NR3C1; PIK3C2A; CDKN1C; TRAF2; SERPINE1; NCOA3;MAPK14; TNF; RAF1; IKBKG; MAP3K7; CREBBP; CDKN1A; MAP2K2; JAK1; IL8;NCOA2; AKT1; JAK2; PIK3R1; CHUK; STAT3; MAP2K1; NFKB1; TGFBR1; ESR1;SMAD4; CEBPB; JUN; AR; AKT3; CCL2; MMP1; STAT1; IL6; HSP90AA1 AxonalGuidance PRKCE; ITGAM; ROCK1; ITGA5; CXCR4; ADAM12; Signaling IGF1;RAC1; RAP1A; EIF4E; PRKCZ; NRP1; NTRK2; ARHGEF7; SMO; ROCK2; MAPK1; PGF;RAC2; PTPN11; GNAS; AKT2; PIK3CA; ERBB2; PRKCI; PTK2; CFL1; GNAQ;PIK3CB; CXCL12; PIK3C3; WNT11; PRKD1; GNB2L1; ABL1; MAPK3; ITGA1; KRAS;RHOA; PRKCD; PIK3C2A; ITGB7; GLI2; PXN; VASP; RAF1; FYN; ITGB1; MAP2K2;PAK4; ADAM17; AKT1; PIK3R1; GLI1; WNT5A; ADAM10; MAP2K1; PAK3; ITGB3;CDC42; VEGFA; ITGA2; EPHA8; CRKL; RND1; GSK3B; AKT3; PRKCA EphrinReceptor PRKCE; ITGAM; ROCK1; ITGA5; CXCR4; IRAK1; Signaling PRKAA2;EIF2AK2; RAC1; RAP1A; GRK6; ROCK2; MAPK1; PGF; RAC2; PTPN11; GNAS; PLK1;AKT2; DOK1; CDK8; CREB1; PTK2; CFL1; GNAQ; MAP3K14; CXCL12; MAPK8;GNB2L1; ABL1; MAPK3; ITGA1; KRAS; RHOA; PRKCD; PRKAA1; MAPK9; SRC; CDK2;PIM1; ITGB7; PXN; RAF1; FYN; DYRK1A; ITGB1; MAP2K2; PAK4; AKT1; JAK2;STAT3; ADAM10; MAP2K1; PAK3; ITGB3; CDC42; VEGFA; ITGA2; EPHA8; TTK;CSNK1A1; CRKL; BRAF; PTPN13; ATF4; AKT3; SGK Actin Cytoskeleton ACTN4;PRKCE; ITGAM; ROCK1; ITGA5; IRAK1; Signaling PRKAA2; EIF2AK2; RAC1; INS;ARHGEF7; GRK6; ROCK2; MAPK1; RAC2; PLK1; AKT2; PIK3CA; CDK8; PTK2; CFL1;PIK3CB; MYH9; DIAPH1; PIK3C3; MAPK8; F2R; MAPK3; SLC9A1; ITGA1; KRAS;RHOA; PRKCD; PRKAA1; MAPK9; CDK2; PIM1; PIK3C2A; ITGB7; PPP1CC; PXN;VIL2; RAF1; GSN; DYRK1A; ITGB1; MAP2K2; PAK4; PIP5K1A; PIK3R1; MAP2K1;PAK3; ITGB3; CDC42; APC; ITGA2; TTK; CSNK1A1; CRKL; BRAF; VAV3; SGKHuntington's Disease PRKCE; IGF1; EP300; RCOR1; PRKCZ; HDAC4; TGM2;Signaling MAPK1; CAPNS1; AKT2; EGFR; NCOR2; SP1; CAPN2; PIK3CA; HDAC5;CREB1; PRKCI; HSPA5; REST; GNAQ; PIK3CB; PIK3C3; MAPK8; IGF1R; PRKD1;GNB2L1; BCL2L1; CAPN1; MAPK3; CASP8; HDAC2; HDAC7A; PRKCD; HDAC11;MAPK9; HDAC9; PIK3C2A; HDAC3; TP53; CASP9; CREBBP; AKT1; PIK3R1; PDPK1;CASP1; APAF1; FRAP1; CASP2; JUN; BAX; ATF4; AKT3; PRKCA; CLTC; SGK;HDAC6; CASP3 Apoptosis Signaling PRKCE; ROCK1; BID; IRAK1; PRKAA2;EIF2AK2; BAK1; BIRC4; GRK6; MAPK1; CAPNS1; PLK1; AKT2; IKBKB; CAPN2;CDK8; FAS; NFKB2; BCL2; MAP3K14; MAPK8; BCL2L1; CAPN1; MAPK3; CASP8;KRAS; RELA; PRKCD; PRKAA1; MAPK9; CDK2; PIM1; TP53; TNF; RAF1; IKBKG;RELB; CASP9; DYRK1A; MAP2K2; CHUK; APAF1; MAP2K1; NFKB1; PAK3; LMNA;CASP2; BIRC2; TTK; CSNK1A1; BRAF; BAX; PRKCA; SGK; CASP3; BIRC3; PARP1 BCell Receptor RAC1; PTEN; LYN; ELK1; MAPK1; RAC2; PTPN11; SignalingAKT2; IKBKB; PIK3CA; CREB1; SYK; NFKB2; CAMK2A; MAP3K14; PIK3CB; PIK3C3;MAPK8; BCL2L1; ABL1; MAPK3; ETS1; KRAS; MAPK13; RELA; PTPN6; MAPK9;EGR1; PIK3C2A; BTK; MAPK14; RAF1; IKBKG; RELB; MAP3K7; MAP2K2; AKT1;PIK3R1; CHUK; MAP2K1; NFKB1; CDC42; GSK3A; FRAP1; BCL6; BCL10; JUN;GSK3B; ATF4; AKT3; VAV3; RPS6KB1 Leukocyte Extravasation ACTN4; CD44;PRKCE; ITGAM; ROCK1; CXCR4; CYBA; Signaling RAC1; RAP1A; PRKCZ; ROCK2;RAC2; PTPN11; MMP14; PIK3CA; PRKCI; PTK2; PIK3CB; CXCL12; PIK3C3; MAPK8;PRKD1; ABL1; MAPK10; CYBB; MAPK13; RHOA; PRKCD; MAPK9; SRC; PIK3C2A;BTK; MAPK14; NOX1; PXN; VIL2; VASP; ITGB1; MAP2K2; CTNND1; PIK3R1;CTNNB1; CLDN1; CDC42; F11R; ITK; CRKL; VAV3; CTTN; PRKCA; MMP1; MMP9Integrin Signaling ACTN4; ITGAM; ROCK1; ITGA5; RAC1; PTEN; RAP1A; TLN1;ARHGEF7; MAPK1; RAC2; CAPNS1; AKT2; CAPN2; PIK3CA; PTK2; PIK3CB; PIK3C3;MAPK8; CAV1; CAPN1; ABL1; MAPK3; ITGA1; KRAS; RHOA; SRC; PIK3C2A; ITGB7;PPP1CC; ILK; PXN; VASP; RAF1; FYN; ITGB1; MAP2K2; PAK4; AKT1; PIK3R1;TNK2; MAP2K1; PAK3; ITGB3; CDC42; RND3; ITGA2; CRKL; BRAF; GSK3B; AKT3Acute Phase Response IRAK1; SOD2; MYD88; TRAF6; ELK1; MAPK1; PTPN11;Signaling AKT2; IKBKB; PIK3CA; FOS; NFKB2; MAP3K14; PIK3CB; MAPK8;RIPK1; MAPK3; IL6ST; KRAS; MAPK13; IL6R; RELA; SOCS1; MAPK9; FTL; NR3C1;TRAF2; SERPINE1; MAPK14; TNF; RAF1; PDK1; IKBKG; RELB; MAP3K7; MAP2K2;AKT1; JAK2; PIK3R1; CHUK; STAT3; MAP2K1; NFKB1; FRAP1; CEBPB; JUN; AKT3;IL1R1; IL6 PTEN Signaling ITGAM; ITGA5; RAC1; PTEN; PRKCZ; BCL2L11;MAPK1; RAC2; AKT2; EGFR; IKBKB; CBL; PIK3CA; CDKN1B; PTK2; NFKB2; BCL2;PIK3CB; BCL2L1; MAPK3; ITGA1; KRAS; ITGB7; ILK; PDGFRB; INSR; RAF1;IKBKG; CASP9; CDKN1A; ITGB1; MAP2K2; AKT1; PIK3R1; CHUK; PDGFRA; PDPK1;MAP2K1; NFKB1; ITGB3; CDC42; CCND1; GSK3A; ITGA2; GSK3B; AKT3; FOXO1;CASP3; RPS6KB1 p53 Signaling PTEN; EP300; BBC3; PCAF; FASN; BRCA1;GADD45A; BIRC5; AKT2; PIK3CA; CHEK1; TP53INP1; BCL2; PIK3CB; PIK3C3;MAPK8; THBS1; ATR; BCL2L1; E2F1; PMAIP1; CHEK2; TNFRSF10B; TP73; RB1;HDAC9; CDK2; PIK3C2A; MAPK14; TP53; LRDD; CDKN1A; HIPK2; AKT1; PIK3R1;RRM2B; APAF1; CTNNB1; SIRT1; CCND1; PRKDC; ATM; SFN; CDKN2A; JUN; SNAI2;GSK3B; BAX; AKT3 Aryl Hydrocarbon HSPB1; EP300; FASN; TGM2; RXRA; MAPK1;NQO1; Receptor Signaling NCOR2; SP1; ARNT; CDKN1B; FOS; CHEK1; SMARCA4;NFKB2; MAPK8; ALDH1A1; ATR; E2F1; MAPK3; NRIP1; CHEK2; RELA; TP73;GSTP1; RB1; SRC; CDK2; AHR; NFE2L2; NCOA3; TP53; TNF; CDKN1A; NCOA2;APAF1; NFKB1; CCND1; ATM; ESR1; CDKN2A; MYC; JUN; ESR2; BAX; IL6;CYP1B1; HSP90AA1 Xenobiotic Metabolism PRKCE; EP300; PRKCZ; RXRA; MAPK1;NQO1; Signaling NCOR2; PIK3CA; ARNT; PRKCI; NFKB2; CAMK2A; PIK3CB;PPP2R1A; PIK3C3; MAPK8; PRKD1; ALDH1A1; MAPK3; NRIP1; KRAS; MAPK13;PRKCD; GSTP1; MAPK9; NOS2A; ABCB1; AHR; PPP2CA; FTL; NFE2L2; PIK3C2A;PPARGC1A; MAPK14; TNF; RAF1; CREBBP; MAP2K2; PIK3R1; PPP2R5C; MAP2K1;NFKB1; KEAP1; PRKCA; EIF2AK3; IL6; CYP1B1; HSP90AA1 SAPK/JNK SignalingPRKCE; IRAK1; PRKAA2; EIF2AK2; RAC1; ELK1; GRK6; MAPK1; GADD45A; RAC2;PLK1; AKT2; PIK3CA; FADD; CDK8; PIK3CB; PIK3C3; MAPK8; RIPK1; GNB2L1;IRS1; MAPK3; MAPK10; DAXX; KRAS; PRKCD; PRKAA1; MAPK9; CDK2; PIM1;PIK3C2A; TRAF2; TP53; LCK; MAP3K7; DYRK1A; MAP2K2; PIK3R1; MAP2K1; PAK3;CDC42; JUN; TTK; CSNK1A1; CRKL; BRAF; SGK PPAr/RXR Signaling PRKAA2;EP300; INS; SMAD2; TRAF6; PPARA; FASN; RXRA; MAPK1; SMAD3; GNAS; IKBKB;NCOR2; ABCA1; GNAQ; NFKB2; MAP3K14; STAT5B; MAPK8; IRS1; MAPK3; KRAS;RELA; PRKAA1; PPARGC1A; NCOA3; MAPK14; INSR; RAF1; IKBKG; RELB; MAP3K7;CREBBP; MAP2K2; JAK2; CHUK; MAP2K1; NFKB1; TGFBR1; SMAD4; JUN; IL1R1;PRKCA; IL6; HSP90AA1; ADIPOQ NF-KB Signaling IRAK1; EIF2AK2; EP300; INS;MYD88; PRKCZ; TRAF6; TBK1; AKT2; EGFR; IKBKB; PIK3CA; BTRC; NFKB2;MAP3K14; PIK3CB; PIK3C3; MAPK8; RIPK1; HDAC2; KRAS; RELA; PIK3C2A;TRAF2; TLR4; PDGFRB; TNF; INSR; LCK; IKBKG; RELB; MAP3K7; CREBBP; AKT1;PIK3R1; CHUK; PDGFRA; NFKB1; TLR2; BCL10; GSK3B; AKT3; TNFAIP3; IL1R1Neuregulin Signaling ERBB4; PRKCE; ITGAM; ITGA5; PTEN; PRKCZ; ELK1;MAPK1; PTPN11; AKT2; EGFR; ERBB2; PRKCI; CDKN1B; STAT5B; PRKD1; MAPK3;ITGA1; KRAS; PRKCD; STAT5A; SRC; ITGB7; RAF1; ITGB1; MAP2K2; ADAM17;AKT1; PIK3R1; PDPK1; MAP2K1; ITGB3; EREG; FRAP1; PSEN1; ITGA2; MYC;NRG1; CRKL; AKT3; PRKCA; HSP90AA1; RPS6KB1 Wnt & Beta catenin CD44;EP300; LRP6; DVL3; CSNK1E; GJA1; SMO; Signaling AKT2; PIN1; CDH1; BTRC;GNAQ; MARK2; PPP2R1A; WNT11; SRC; DKK1; PPP2CA; SOX6; SFRP2; ILK; LEF1;SOX9; TP53; MAP3K7; CREBBP; TCF7L2; AKT1; PPP2R5C; WNT5A; LRP5; CTNNB1;TGFBR1; CCND1; GSK3A; DVL1; APC; CDKN2A; MYC; CSNK1A1; GSK3B; AKT3; SOX2Insulin Receptor PTEN; INS; EIF4E; PTPN1; PRKCZ; MAPK1; TSC1; SignalingPTPN11; AKT2; CBL; PIK3CA; PRKCI; PIK3CB; PIK3C3; MAPK8; IRS1; MAPK3;TSC2; KRAS; EIF4EBP1; SLC2A4; PIK3C2A; PPP1CC; INSR; RAF1; FYN; MAP2K2;JAK1; AKT1; JAK2; PIK3R1; PDPK1; MAP2K1; GSK3A; FRAP1; CRKL; GSK3B;AKT3; FOXO1; SGK; RPS6KB1 IL-6 Signaling HSPB1; TRAF6; MAPKAPK2; ELK1;MAPK1; PTPN11; IKBKB; FOS; NFKB2; MAP3K14; MAPK8; MAPK3; MAPK10; IL6ST;KRAS; MAPK13; IL6R; RELA; SOCS1; MAPK9; ABCB1; TRAF2; MAPK14; TNF; RAF1;IKBKG; RELB; MAP3K7; MAP2K2; IL8; JAK2; CHUK; STAT3; MAP2K1; NFKB1;CEBPB; JUN; IL1R1; SRF; IL6 Hepatic Cholestasis PRKCE; IRAK1; INS;MYD88; PRKCZ; TRAF6; PPARA; RXRA; IKBKB; PRKCI; NFKB2; MAP3K14; MAPK8;PRKD1; MAPK10; RELA; PRKCD; MAPK9; ABCB1; TRAF2; TLR4; TNF; INSR; IKBKG;RELB; MAP3K7; IL8; CHUK; NR1H2; TJP2; NFKB1; ESR1; SREBF1; FGFR4; JUN;IL1R1; PRKCA; IL6 IGF-1 Signaling IGF1; PRKCZ; ELK1; MAPK1; PTPN11;NEDD4; AKT2; PIK3CA; PRKCI; PTK2; FOS; PIK3CB; PIK3C3; MAPK8; IGF1R;IRS1; MAPK3; IGFBP7; KRAS; PIK3C2A; YWHAZ; PXN; RAF1; CASP9; MAP2K2;AKT1; PIK3R1; PDPK1; MAP2K1; IGFBP2; SFN; JUN; CYR61; AKT3; FOXO1; SRF;CTGF; RPS6KB1 NRF2-mediated PRKCE; EP300; SOD2; PRKCZ; MAPK1; SQSTM1;Oxidative Stress Response NQO1; PIK3CA; PRKCI; FOS; PIK3CB; PIK3C3;MAPK8; PRKD1; MAPK3; KRAS; PRKCD; GSTP1; MAPK9; FTL; NFE2L2; PIK3C2A;MAPK14; RAF1; MAP3K7; CREBBP; MAP2K2; AKT1; PIK3R1; MAP2K1; PPIB; JUN;KEAP1; GSK3B; ATF4; PRKCA; EIF2AK3; HSP90AA1 Hepatic Fibrosis/HepaticEDN1; IGF1; KDR; FLT1; SMAD2; FGFR1; MET; PGF; Stellate Cell ActivationSMAD3; EGFR; FAS; CSF1; NFKB2; BCL2; MYH9; IGF1R; IL6R; RELA; TLR4;PDGFRB; TNF; RELB; IL8; PDGFRA; NFKB1; TGFBR1; SMAD4; VEGFA; BAX; IL1R1;CCL2; HGF; MMP1; STAT1; IL6; CTGF; MMP9 PPAR Signaling EP300; INS;TRAF6; PPARA; RXRA; MAPK1; IKBKB; NCOR2; FOS; NFKB2; MAP3K14; STAT5B;MAPK3; NRIP1; KRAS; PPARG; RELA; STAT5A; TRAF2; PPARGC1A; PDGFRB; TNF;INSR; RAF1; IKBKG; RELB; MAP3K7; CREBBP; MAP2K2; CHUK; PDGFRA; MAP2K1;NFKB1; JUN; IL1R1; HSP90AA1 Fc Epsilon RI Signaling PRKCE; RAC1; PRKCZ;LYN; MAPK1; RAC2; PTPN11; AKT2; PIK3CA; SYK; PRKCI; PIK3CB; PIK3C3;MAPK8; PRKD1; MAPK3; MAPK10; KRAS; MAPK13; PRKCD; MAPK9; PIK3C2A; BTK;MAPK14; TNF; RAF1; FYN; MAP2K2; AKT1; PIK3R1; PDPK1; MAP2K1; AKT3; VAV3;PRKCA G-Protein Coupled PRKCE; RAP1A; RGS16; MAPK1; GNAS; AKT2; IKBKB;Receptor Signaling PIK3CA; CREB1; GNAQ; NFKB2; CAMK2A; PIK3CB; PIK3C3;MAPK3; KRAS; RELA; SRC; PIK3C2A; RAF1; IKBKG; RELB; FYN; MAP2K2; AKT1;PIK3R1; CHUK; PDPK1; STAT3; MAP2K1; NFKB1; BRAF; ATF4; AKT3; PRKCAInositol Phosphate PRKCE; IRAK1; PRKAA2; EIF2AK2; PTEN; GRK6; MetabolismMAPK1; PLK1; AKT2; PIK3CA; CDK8; PIK3CB; PIK3C3; MAPK8; MAPK3; PRKCD;PRKAA1; MAPK9; CDK2; PIM1; PIK3C2A; DYRK1A; MAP2K2; PIP5K1A; PIK3R1;MAP2K1; PAK3; ATM; TTK; CSNK1A1; BRAF; SGK PDGF Signaling EIF2AK2; ELK1;ABL2; MAPK1; PIK3CA; FOS; PIK3CB; PIK3C3; MAPK8; CAV1; ABL1; MAPK3;KRAS; SRC; PIK3C2A; PDGFRB; RAF1; MAP2K2; JAK1; JAK2; PIK3R1; PDGFRA;STAT3; SPHK1; MAP2K1; MYC; JUN; CRKL; PRKCA; SRF; STAT1; SPHK2 VEGFSignaling ACTN4; ROCK1; KDR; FLT1; ROCK2; MAPK1; PGF; AKT2; PIK3CA;ARNT; PTK2; BCL2; PIK3CB; PIK3C3; BCL2L1; MAPK3; KRAS; HIF1A; NOS3;PIK3C2A; PXN; RAF1; MAP2K2; ELAVL1; AKT1; PIK3R1; MAP2K1; SFN; VEGFA;AKT3; FOXO1; PRKCA Natural Killer Cell PRKCE; RAC1; PRKCZ; MAPK1; RAC2;PTPN11; Signaling KIR2DL3; AKT2; PIK3CA; SYK; PRKCI; PIK3CB; PIK3C3;PRKD1; MAPK3; KRAS; PRKCD; PTPN6; PIK3C2A; LCK; RAF1; FYN; MAP2K2; PAK4;AKT1; PIK3R1; MAP2K1; PAK3; AKT3; VAV3; PRKCA Cell Cycle: G1/S HDAC4;SMAD3; SUV39H1; HDAC5; CDKN1B; BTRC; Checkpoint Regulation ATR; ABL1;E2F1; HDAC2; HDAC7A; RB1; HDAC11; HDAC9; CDK2; E2F2; HDAC3; TP53;CDKN1A; CCND1; E2F4; ATM; RBL2; SMAD4; CDKN2A; MYC; NRG1; GSK3B; RBL1;HDAC6 T Cell Receptor RAC1; ELK1; MAPK1; IKBKB; CBL; PIK3CA; FOS;Signaling NFKB2; PIK3CB; PIK3C3; MAPK8; MAPK3; KRAS; RELA; PIK3C2A; BTK;LCK; RAF1; IKBKG; RELB; FYN; MAP2K2; PIK3R1; CHUK; MAP2K1; NFKB1; ITK;BCL10; JUN; VAV3 Death Receptor Signaling CRADD; HSPB1; BID; BIRC4;TBK1; IKBKB; FADD; FAS; NFKB2; BCL2; MAP3K14; MAPK8; RIPK1; CASP8; DAXX;TNFRSF10B; RELA; TRAF2; TNF; IKBKG; RELB; CASP9; CHUK; APAF1; NFKB1;CASP2; BIRC2; CASP3; BIRC3 FGF Signaling RAC1; FGFR1; MET; MAPKAPK2;MAPK1; PTPN11; AKT2; PIK3CA; CREB1; PIK3CB; PIK3C3; MAPK8; MAPK3;MAPK13; PTPN6; PIK3C2A; MAPK14; RAF1; AKT1; PIK3R1; STAT3; MAP2K1;FGFR4; CRKL; ATF4; AKT3; PRKCA; HGF GM-CSF Signaling LYN; ELK1; MAPK1;PTPN11; AKT2; PIK3CA; CAMK2A; STAT5B; PIK3CB; PIK3C3; GNB2L1; BCL2L1;MAPK3; ETS1; KRAS; RUNX1; PIM1; PIK3C2A; RAF1; MAP2K2; AKT1; JAK2;PIK3R1; STAT3; MAP2K1; CCND1; AKT3; STAT1 Amyotrophic Lateral BID; IGF1;RAC1; BIRC4; PGF; CAPNS1; CAPN2; Sclerosis Signaling PIK3CA; BCL2;PIK3CB; PIK3C3; BCL2L1; CAPN1; PIK3C2A; TP53; CASP9; PIK3R1; RAB5A;CASP1; APAF1; VEGFA; BIRC2; BAX; AKT3; CASP3; BIRC3 JAK/Stat SignalingPTPN1; MAPK1; PTPN11; AKT2; PIK3CA; STAT5B; PIK3CB; PIK3C3; MAPK3; KRAS;SOCS1; STAT5A; PTPN6; PIK3C2A; RAF1; CDKN1A; MAP2K2; JAK1; AKT1; JAK2;PIK3R1; STAT3; MAP2K1; FRAP1; AKT3; STAT1 Nicotinate and PRKCE; IRAK1;PRKAA2; EIF2AK2; GRK6; MAPK1; Nicotinamide Metabolism PLK1; AKT2; CDK8;MAPK8; MAPK3; PRKCD; PRKAA1; PBEF1; MAPK9; CDK2; PIM1; DYRK1A; MAP2K2;MAP2K1; PAK3; NT5E; TTK; CSNK1A1; BRAF; SGK Chemokine Signaling CXCR4;ROCK2; MAPK1; PTK2; FOS; CFL1; GNAQ; CAMK2A; CXCL12; MAPK8; MAPK3; KRAS;MAPK13; RHOA; CCR3; SRC; PPP1CC; MAPK14; NOX1; RAF1; MAP2K2; MAP2K1;JUN; CCL2; PRKCA IL-2 Signaling ELK1; MAPK1; PTPN11; AKT2; PIK3CA; SYK;FOS; STAT5B; PIK3CB; PIK3C3; MAPK8; MAPK3; KRAS; SOCS1; STAT5A; PIK3C2A;LCK; RAF1; MAP2K2; JAK1; AKT1; PIK3R1; MAP2K1; JUN; AKT3 Synaptic LongTerm PRKCE; IGF1; PRKCZ; PRDX6; LYN; MAPK1; GNAS; Depression PRKCI;GNAQ; PPP2R1A; IGF1R; PRKD1; MAPK3; KRAS; GRN; PRKCD; NOS3; NOS2A;PPP2CA; YWHAZ; RAF1; MAP2K2; PPP2R5C; MAP2K1; PRKCA Estrogen ReceptorTAF4B; EP300; CARM1; PCAF; MAPK1; NCOR2; Signaling SMARCA4; MAPK3;NRIP1; KRAS; SRC; NR3C1; HDAC3; PPARGC1A; RBM9; NCOA3; RAF1; CREBBP;MAP2K2; NCOA2; MAP2K1; PRKDC; ESR1; ESR2 Protein Ubiquitination TRAF6;SMURF1; BIRC4; BRCA1; UCHL1; NEDD4; Pathway CBL; UBE2I; BTRC; HSPA5;USP7; USP10; FBXW7; USP9X; STUB1; USP22; B2M; BIRC2; PARK2; USP8; USP1;VHL; HSP90AA1; BIRC3 IL-10 Signaling TRAF6; CCR1; ELK1; IKBKB; SP1; FOS;NFKB2; MAP3K14; MAPK8; MAPK13; RELA; MAPK14; TNF; IKBKG; RELB; MAP3K7;JAK1; CHUK; STAT3; NFKB1; JUN; IL1R1; IL6 VDR/RXR Activation PRKCE;EP300; PRKCZ; RXRA; GADD45A; HES1; NCOR2; SP1; PRKCI; CDKN1B; PRKD1;PRKCD; RUNX2; KLF4; YY1; NCOA3; CDKN1A; NCOA2; SPP1; LRP5; CEBPB; FOXO1;PRKCA TGF-beta Signaling EP300; SMAD2; SMURF1; MAPK1; SMAD3; SMAD1; FOS;MAPK8; MAPK3; KRAS; MAPK9; RUNX2; SERPINE1; RAF1; MAP3K7; CREBBP;MAP2K2; MAP2K1; TGFBR1; SMAD4; JUN; SMAD5 Toll-like Receptor IRAK1;EIF2AK2; MYD88; TRAF6; PPARA; ELK1; Signaling IKBKB; FOS; NFKB2;MAP3K14; MAPK8; MAPK13; RELA; TLR4; MAPK14; IKBKG; RELB; MAP3K7; CHUK;NFKB1; TLR2; JUN p38 MAPK Signaling HSPB1; IRAK1; TRAF6; MAPKAPK2; ELK1;FADD; FAS; CREB1; DDIT3; RPS6KA4; DAXX; MAPK13; TRAF2; MAPK14; TNF;MAP3K7; TGFBR1; MYC; ATF4; IL1R1; SRF; STAT1 Neurotrophin/TRK NTRK2;MAPK1; PTPN11; PIK3CA; CREB1; FOS; Signaling PIK3CB; PIK3C3; MAPK8;MAPK3; KRAS; PIK3C2A; RAF1; MAP2K2; AKT1; PIK3R1; PDPK1; MAP2K1; CDC42;JUN; ATF4 FXR/RXR Activation INS; PPARA; FASN; RXRA; AKT2; SDC1; MAPK8;APOB; MAPK10; PPARG; MTTP; MAPK9; PPARGC1A; TNF; CREBBP; AKT1; SREBF1;FGFR4; AKT3; FOXO1 Synaptic Long Term PRKCE; RAP1A; EP300; PRKCZ; MAPK1;CREB1; Potentiation PRKCI; GNAQ; CAMK2A; PRKD1; MAPK3; KRAS; PRKCD;PPP1CC; RAF1; CREBBP; MAP2K2; MAP2K1; ATF4; PRKCA Calcium SignalingRAP1A; EP300; HDAC4; MAPK1; HDAC5; CREB1; CAMK2A; MYH9; MAPK3; HDAC2;HDAC7A; HDAC11; HDAC9; HDAC3; CREBBP; CALR; CAMKK2; ATF4; HDAC6 EGFSignaling ELK1; MAPK1; EGFR; PIK3CA; FOS; PIK3CB; PIK3C3; MAPK8; MAPK3;PIK3C2A; RAF1; JAK1; PIK3R1; STAT3; MAP2K1; JUN; PRKCA; SRF; STAT1Hypoxia Signaling in the EDN1; PTEN; EP300; NQO1; UBE2I; CREB1; ARNT;Cardiovascular System HIF1A; SLC2A4; NOS3; TP53; LDHA; AKT1; ATM; VEGFA;JUN; ATF4; VHL; HSP90AA1 LPS/IL-1 Mediated IRAK1; MYD88; TRAF6; PPARA;RXRA; ABCA1; Inhibition of RXR Function MAPK8; ALDH1A1; GSTP1; MAPK9;ABCB1; TRAF2; TLR4; TNF; MAP3K7; NR1H2; SREBF1; JUN; IL1R1 LXR/RXRActivation FASN; RXRA; NCOR2; ABCA1; NFKB2; IRF3; RELA; NOS2A; TLR4;TNF; RELB; LDLR; NR1H2; NFKB1; SREBF1; IL1R1; CCL2; IL6; MMP9 AmyloidProcessing PRKCE; CSNK1E; MAPK1; CAPNS1; AKT2; CAPN2; CAPN1; MAPK3;MAPK13; MAPT; MAPK14; AKT1; PSEN1; CSNK1A1; GSK3B; AKT3; APP IL-4Signaling AKT2; PIK3CA; PIK3CB; PIK3C3; IRS1; KRAS; SOCS1; PTPN6; NR3C1;PIK3C2A; JAK1; AKT1; JAK2; PIK3R1; FRAP1; AKT3; RPS6KB1 Cell Cycle: G2/MDNA EP300; PCAF; BRCA1; GADD45A; PLK1; BTRC; Damage Checkpoint CHEK1;ATR; CHEK2; YWHAZ; TP53; CDKN1A; Regulation PRKDC; ATM; SFN; CDKN2ANitric Oxide Signaling in KDR; FLT1; PGF; AKT2; PIK3CA; PIK3CB; PIK3C3;the Cardiovascular System CAV1; PRKCD; NOS3; PIK3C2A; AKT1; PIK3R1;VEGFA; AKT3; HSP90AA1 Purine Metabolism NME2; SMARCA4; MYH9; RRM2; ADAR;EIF2AK4; PKM2; ENTPD1; RAD51; RRM2B; TJP2; RAD51C; NT5E; POLD1; NME1cAMP-mediated RAP1A; MAPK1; GNAS; CREB1; CAMK2A; MAPK3; Signaling SRC;RAF1; MAP2K2; STAT3; MAP2K1; BRAF; ATF4 Mitochondrial SOD2; MAPK8;CASP8; MAPK10; MAPK9; CASP9; Dysfunction PARK7; PSEN1; PARK2; APP; CASP3Notch Signaling HES1; JAG1; NUMB; NOTCH4; ADAM17; NOTCH2; PSEN1; NOTCH3;NOTCH1; DLL4 Endoplasmic Reticulum HSPA5; MAPK8; XBP1; TRAF2; ATF6;CASP9; ATF4; Stress Pathway EIF2AK3; CASP3 Pyrimidine Metabolism NME2;AICDA; RRM2; EIF2AK4; ENTPD1; RRM2B; NT5E; POLD1; NME1 Parkinson'sSignaling UCHL1; MAPK8; MAPK13; MAPK14; CASP9; PARK7; PARK2; CASP3Cardiac & Beta GNAS; GNAQ; PPP2R1A; GNB2L1; PPP2CA; PPP1CC; AdrenergicSignaling PPP2R5C Glycolysis/Gluconeogenesis HK2; GCK; GPI; ALDH1A1;PKM2; LDHA; HK1 Interferon Signaling IRF1; SOCS1; JAK1; JAK2; IFITM1;STAT1; IFIT3 Sonic Hedgehog ARRB2; SMO; GLI2; DYRK1A; GLI1; GSK3B;DYRK1B Signaling Glycerophospholipid PLD1; GRN; GPAM; YWHAZ; SPHK1;SPHK2 Metabolism Phospholipid PRDX6; PLD1; GRN; YWHAZ; SPHK1; SPHK2Degradation Tryptophan SIAH2; PRMT5; NEDD4; ALDH1A1; CYP1B1; SIAH1Metabolism Lysine Degradation SUV39H1; EHMT2; NSD1; SETD7; PPP2R5CNucleotide Excision ERCC5; ERCC4; XPA; XPC; ERCC1 Repair Pathway Starchand Sucrose UCHL1; HK2; GCK; GPI; HK1 Metabolism Aminosugars NQO1; HK2;GCK; HK1 Metabolism Arachidonic Acid PRDX6; GRN; YWHAZ; CYP1B1Metabolism Circadian Rhythm CSNK1E; CREB1; ATF4; NR1D1 SignalingCoagulation System BDKRB1; F2R; SERPINE1; F3 Dopamine Receptor PPP2R1A;PPP2CA; PPP1CC; PPP2R5C Signaling Glutathione Metabolism IDH2; GSTP1;ANPEP; IDH1 Glycerolipid ALDH1A1; GPAM; SPHK1; SPHK2 Metabolism LinoleicAcid PRDX6; GRN; YWHAZ; CYP1B1 Metabolism Methionine Metabolism DNMT1;DNMT3B; AHCY; DNMT3A Pyruvate Metabolism GLO1; ALDH1A1; PKM2; LDHAArginine and Proline ALDH1A1; NOS3; NOS2A Metabolism EicosanoidSignaling PRDX6; GRN; YWHAZ Fructose and Mannose HK2; GCK; HK1Metabolism Galactose Metabolism HK2; GCK; HK1 Stilbene, Coumarine andPRDX6; PRDX1; TYR Lignin Biosynthesis Antigen Presentation CALR; B2MPathway Biosynthesis of Steroids NQO1; DHCR7 Butanoate MetabolismALDH1A1; NLGN1 Citrate Cycle IDH2; IDH1 Fatty Acid Metabolism ALDH1A1;CYP1B1 Glycerophospholipid PRDX6; CHKA Metabolism Histidine MetabolismPRMT5; ALDH1A1 Inositol Metabolism ERO1L; APEX1 Metabolism of GSTP1;CYP1B1 Xenobiotics by Cytochrome p450 Methane Metabolism PRDX6; PRDX1Phenylalanine PRDX6; PRDX1 Metabolism Propanoate Metabolism ALDH1A1;LDHA Selenoamino Acid PRMT5; AHCY Metabolism Sphingolipid SPHK1; SPHK2Metabolism Aminophosphonate PRMT5 Metabolism Androgen and Estrogen PRMT5Metabolism Ascorbate and Aldarate ALDH1A1 Metabolism Bile AcidBiosynthesis ALDH1A1 Cysteine Metabolism LDHA Fatty Acid BiosynthesisFASN Glutamate Receptor GNB2L1 Signaling NRF2-mediated PRDX1 OxidativeStress Response Pentose Phosphate GPI Pathway Pentose and UCHL1Glucuronate Interconversions Retinol Metabolism ALDH1A1 RiboflavinMetabolism TYR Tyrosine Metabolism PRMT5, TYR Ubiquinone PRMT5Biosynthesis Valine, Leucine and ALDH1A1 Isoleucine Degradation Glycine,Serine and CHKA Threonine Metabolism Lysine Degradation ALDH1A1Pain/Taste TRPM5; TRPA1 Pain TRPM7; TRPC5; TRPC6; TRPC1; Cnr1; cnr2;Grk2; Trpa1; Pomc; Cgrp; Crf; Pka; Era; Nr2b; TRPM5; Prkaca; Prkacb;Prkar1a; Prkar2a Mitochondrial Function AIF; CytC; SMAC (Diablo);Aifm-1; Aifm-2 Developmental BMP-4; Chordin (Chrd); Noggin (Nog); WNT(Wnt2; Neurology Wnt2b; Wnt3a; Wnt4; Wnt5a; Wnt6; Wnt7b; Wnt8b; Wnt9a;Wnt9b; Wnt10a; Wnt10b; Wnt16); beta-catenin; Dkk-1; Frizzled relatedproteins; Otx-2; Gbx2; FGF-8; Reelin; Dab1; unc-86 (Pou4f1 or Brn3a);Numb; Reln

The metabolism-related targets described above, especially thosehighlighted, are particularly preferred where they are expressed in theliver.

Embodiments of the invention also relate to methods and compositionsrelated to knocking out genes, amplifying genes and repairing particularmutations associated with DNA repeat instability and neurologicaldisorders (Robert D. Wells, Tetsuo Ashizawa, Genetic Instabilities andNeurological Diseases, Second Edition, Academic Press, Oct. 13,2011-Medical). Specific aspects of tandem repeat sequences have beenfound to be responsible for more than twenty human diseases (Newinsights into repeat instability: role of RNA.DNA hybrids. McIvor E I,Polak U, Napierala M. RNA Biol. 2010 September-October; 7(5):551-8). TheCRISPR-Cas system may be harnessed to correct these defects of genomicinstability.

A further aspect of the invention relates to utilizing the CRISPR-Cassystem for correcting defects in the EMP2A and EMP2B genes that havebeen identified to be associated with Lafora disease. Lafora disease isan autosomal recessive condition which is characterized by progressivemyoclonus epilepsy which may start as epileptic seizures in adolescence.A few cases of the disease may be caused by mutations in genes yet to beidentified. The disease causes seizures, muscle spasms, difficultywalking, dementia, and eventually death. There is currently no therapythat has proven effective against disease progression. Other geneticabnormalities associated with epilepsy may also be targeted by theCRISPR-Cas system and the underlying genetics is further described inGenetics of Epilepsy and Genetic Epilepsies, edited by GiulianoAvanzini, Jeffrey L. Noebels, Mariani Foundation PaediatricNeurology:20; 2009).

The methods of US Patent Publication No. 20110158957 assigned to SangamoBioSciences, Inc. involved in inactivating T cell receptor (TCR) genesmay also be modified to the CRISPR Cas system of the present invention.In another example, the methods of US Patent Publication No. 20100311124assigned to Sangamo BioSciences, Inc. and US Patent Publication No.20110225664 assigned to Cellectis, which are both involved ininactivating glutamine synthetase gene expression genes may also bemodified to the CRISPR Cas system of the present invention.

Several further aspects of the invention relate to correcting defectsassociated with a wide range of genetic diseases which are furtherdescribed on the website of the National Institutes of Health under thetopic subsection Genetic Disorders (website athealth.nih.gov/topic/GeneticDisorders). The genetic brain diseases mayinclude but are not limited to Adrenoleukodystrophy, Agenesis of theCorpus Callosum, Aicardi Syndrome, Alpers' Disease, Alzheimer's Disease,Barth Syndrome, Batten Disease, CADASIL, Cerebellar Degeneration,Fabry's Disease, Gerstmann-Straussler-Scheinker Disease, Huntington'sDisease and other Triplet Repeat Disorders, Leigh's Disease, Lesch-NyhanSyndrome, Menkes Disease, Mitochondrial Myopathies and NINDSColpocephaly. These diseases are further described on the website of theNational Institutes of Health under the subsection Genetic BrainDisorders.

In some embodiments, the condition may be neoplasia. In someembodiments, where the condition is neoplasia, the genes to be targetedare any of those listed in Table A (in this case PTEN and so forth). Insome embodiments, the condition may be Age-related Macular Degeneration.In some embodiments, the condition may be a Schizophrenic Disorder. Insome embodiments, the condition may be a Trinucleotide Repeat Disorder.In some embodiments, the condition may be Fragile X Syndrome. In someembodiments, the condition may be a Secretase Related Disorder. In someembodiments, the condition may be a Prion—related disorder. In someembodiments, the condition may be ALS. In some embodiments, thecondition may be a drug addiction. In some embodiments, the conditionmay be Autism. In some embodiments, the condition may be Alzheimer'sDisease. In some embodiments, the condition may be inflammation. In someembodiments, the condition may be Parkinson's Disease.

For example, US Patent Publication No. 20110023145, describes use ofzinc finger nucleases to genetically modify cells, animals and proteinsassociated with autism spectrum disorders (ASD). Autism spectrumdisorders (ASDs) are a group of disorders characterized by qualitativeimpairment in social interaction and communication, and restrictedrepetitive and stereotyped patterns of behavior, interests, andactivities. The three disorders, autism, Asperger syndrome (AS) andpervasive developmental disorder-not otherwise specified (PDD-NOS) are acontinuum of the same disorder with varying degrees of severity,associated intellectual functioning and medical conditions. ASDs arepredominantly genetically determined disorders with a heritability ofaround 90%.

US Patent Publication No. 20110023145 comprises editing of anychromosomal sequences that encode proteins associated with ASD which maybe applied to the CRISPR Cas system of the present invention. Theproteins associated with ASD are typically selected based on anexperimental association of the protein associated with ASD to anincidence or indication of an ASD. For example, the production rate orcirculating concentration of a protein associated with ASD may beelevated or depressed in a population having an ASD relative to apopulation lacking the ASD. Differences in protein levels may beassessed using proteomic techniques including but not limited to Westernblot, immunohistochemical staining, enzyme linked immunosorbent assay(ELISA), and mass spectrometry. Alternatively, the proteins associatedwith ASD may be identified by obtaining gene expression profiles of thegenes encoding the proteins using genomic techniques including but notlimited to DNA microarray analysis, serial analysis of gene expression(SAGE), and quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (Q-PCR).

Non limiting examples of disease states or disorders that may beassociated with proteins associated with ASD include autism, Aspergersyndrome (AS), pervasive developmental disorder-not otherwise specified(PDD-NOS), Rett's syndrome, tuberous sclerosis, phenylketonuria,Smith-Lemli-Opitz syndrome and fragile X syndrome. By way ofnon-limiting example, proteins associated with ASD include but are notlimited to the following proteins: ATP10C aminophospholipid-MET METreceptor transporting ATPase tyrosine kinase (ATP10C) BZRAP1 MGLUR5(GRM5) Metabotropic glutamate receptor 5 (MGLUR5) CDH10 Cadherin-10MGLUR6 (GRM6) Metabotropic glutamate receptor 6 (MGLUR6) CDH9 Cadherin-9NLGN1 Neuroligin-1 CNTN4 Contactin-4 NLGN2 Neuroligin-2 CNTNAP2Contactin-associated SEMASA Neuroligin-3 protein-like 2 (CNTNAP2) DHCR77-dehydrocholesterol NLGN4X Neuroligin-4 X-reductase (DHCR7) linkedDOC2A Double C2-like domain-NLGN4Y Neuroligin-4 Y-containing proteinalpha linked DPP6 Dipeptidyl NLGN5 Neuroligin-5 aminopeptidase-likeprotein 6 EN2 engrailed 2 (EN2) NRCAM Neuronal cell adhesion molecule(NRCAM) MDGA2 fragile X mental retardation NRXN1 Neurexin-1 1 (MDGA2)FMR2 (AFF2) AF4/FMR2 family member 2 OR4M2 Olfactory receptor (AFF2) 4M2FOXP2 Forkhead box protein P2 OR4N4 Olfactory receptor (FOXP2) 4N4 FXR1Fragile X mental OXTR oxytocin receptor retardation, autosomal (OXTR)homolog 1 (FXR1) FXR2 Fragile X mental PAH phenylalanine retardation,autosomal hydroxylase (PAH) homolog 2 (FXR2) GABRA1 Gamma-aminobutyricacid PTEN Phosphatase and receptor subunit alpha-1 tensin homologue(GABRA1) (PTEN) GABRA5 GABAA (.gamma.-aminobutyric PTPRZ1 Receptor-typeacid) receptor alpha 5 tyrosine-protein subunit (GABRA5) phosphatasezeta (PTPRZ1) GABRB1 Gamma-aminobutyric acid RELN Reelin receptorsubunit beta-1 (GABRB1) GABRB3 GABAA (.gamma.-aminobutyric RPL10 60Sribosomal acid) receptor .beta.3 subunit protein L10 (GABRB3) GABRG1Gamma-aminobutyric acid SEMA5A Semaphorin-5A receptor subunit gamma-1(SEMA5A) (GABRG1) HIRIP3 HIRA-interacting protein 3 SEZ6L2 seizurerelated 6 homolog (mouse)-like 2 HOXA1 Homeobox protein Hox-A1 SHANK3SH3 and multiple (HOXA1) ankyrin repeat domains 3 (SHANK3) IL6Interleukin-6 SHBZRAP1 SH3 and multiple ankyrin repeat domains 3(SHBZRAP1) LAMB1 Laminin subunit beta-1 SLC6A4 Serotonin (LAMB1)transporter (SERT) MAPK3 Mitogen-activated protein TAS2R1 Taste receptorkinase 3 type 2 member 1 TAS2R1 MAZ Myc-associated zinc finger TSC1Tuberous sclerosis protein protein 1 MDGA2 MAM domain containing TSC2Tuberous sclerosis glycosylphosphatidylinositol protein 2 anchor 2(MDGA2) MECP2 Methyl CpG binding UBE3A Ubiquitin protein protein 2(MECP2) ligase E3A (UBE3A) MECP2 methyl CpG binding WNT2 Wingless-typeprotein 2 (MECP2) MMTV integration site family, member 2 (WNT2)

The identity of the protein associated with ASD whose chromosomalsequence is edited can and will vary. In preferred embodiments, theproteins associated with ASD whose chromosomal sequence is edited may bethe benzodiazapine receptor (peripheral) associated protein 1 (BZRAP1)encoded by the BZRAP1 gene, the AF4/FMR2 family member 2 protein (AFF2)encoded by the AFF2 gene (also termed MFR2), the fragile X mentalretardation autosomal homolog 1 protein (FXR1) encoded by the FXR1 gene,the fragile X mental retardation autosomal homolog 2 protein (FXR2)encoded by the FXR2 gene, the MAM domain containingglycosylphosphatidylinositol anchor 2 protein (MDGA2) encoded by theMDGA2 gene, the methyl CpG binding protein 2 (MECP2) encoded by theMECP2 gene, the metabotropic glutamate receptor 5 (MGLUR5) encoded bythe MGLUR5-1 gene (also termed GRM5), the neurexin 1 protein encoded bythe NRXN1 gene, or the semaphorin-5A protein (SEMA5A) encoded by theSEMA5A gene. In an exemplary embodiment, the genetically modified animalis a rat, and the edited chromosomal sequence encoding the proteinassociated with ASD is as listed below: BZRAP1 benzodiazapine receptorXM_002727789, (peripheral) associated XM_213427, protein 1 (BZRAP1)XM_002724533, XM_001081125 AFF2 (FMR2) AF4/FMR2 family member 2XM_219832, (AFF2) XM_001054673 FXR1 Fragile X mental NM_001012179retardation, autosomal homolog 1 (FXR1) FXR2 Fragile X mentalNM_001100647 retardation, autosomal homolog 2 (FXR2) MDGA2 MAM domaincontaining NM_199269 glycosylphosphatidylinositol anchor 2 (MDGA2) MECP2Methyl CpG binding NM_022673 protein 2 (MECP2) MGLUR5 Metabotropicglutamate NM_017012 (GRM5) receptor 5 (MGLUR5) NRXN1 Neurexin-1NM_021767 SEMA5A Semaphorin-5A (SEMA5A) NM_001107659

Exemplary animals or cells may comprise one, two, three, four, five,six, seven, eight, or nine or more inactivated chromosomal sequencesencoding a protein associated with ASD, and zero, one, two, three, four,five, six, seven, eight, nine or more chromosomally integrated sequencesencoding proteins associated with ASD. The edited or integratedchromosomal sequence may be modified to encode an altered proteinassociated with ASD. Non-limiting examples of mutations in proteinsassociated with ASD include the L18Q mutation in neurexin 1 where theleucine at position 18 is replaced with a glutamine, the R451C mutationin neuroligin 3 where the arginine at position 451 is replaced with acysteine, the R87W mutation in neuroligin 4 where the arginine atposition 87 is replaced with a tryptophan, and the I425V mutation inserotonin transporter where the isoleucine at position 425 is replacedwith a valine. A number of other mutations and chromosomalrearrangements in ASD-related chromosomal sequences have been associatedwith ASD and are known in the art. See, for example, Freitag et al.(2010) Eur. Child. Adolesc. Psychiatry 19:169-178, and Bucan et al.(2009) PLoS Genetics 5: e1000536, the disclosure of which isincorporated by reference herein in its entirety.

Examples of proteins associated with Parkinson's disease include but arenot limited to α-synuclein, DJ-1, LRRK2, PINK1, Parkin, UCHL1,Synphilin-1, and NURR1.

Examples of addiction-related proteins may include ABAT for example.

Examples of inflammation-related proteins may include the monocytechemoattractant protein-1 (MCP1) encoded by the Ccr2 gene, the C—Cchemokine receptor type 5 (CCR5) encoded by the Ccr5 gene, the IgGreceptor IIB (FCGR2b, also termed CD32) encoded by the Fcgr2b gene, orthe Fc epsilon Rlg (FCER1g) protein encoded by the Fcerlg gene, forexample.

Examples of cardiovascular diseases associated proteins may include IL1B(interleukin 1, beta), XDH (xanthine dehydrogenase), TP53 (tumor proteinp53), PTGIS (prostaglandin 12 (prostacyclin) synthase), MB (myoglobin),1L4 (interleukin 4), ANGPT1 (angiopoietin 1), ABCG8 (ATP-bindingcassette, sub-family G (WHITE), member 8), or CTSK (cathepsin K), forexample.

For example, US Patent Publication No. 20110023153, describes use ofzinc finger nucleases to genetically modify cells, animals and proteinsassociated with Alzheimer's Disease. Once modified cells and animals maybe further tested using known methods to study the effects of thetargeted mutations on the development and/or progression of AD usingmeasures commonly used in the study of AD—such as, without limitation,learning and memory, anxiety, depression, addiction, and sensory motorfunctions as well as assays that measure behavioral, functional,pathological, metaboloic and biochemical function.

The present disclosure comprises editing of any chromosomal sequencesthat encode proteins associated with AD. The AD-related proteins aretypically selected based on an experimental association of theAD-related protein to an AD disorder. For example, the production rateor circulating concentration of an AD-related protein may be elevated ordepressed in a population having an AD disorder relative to a populationlacking the AD disorder. Differences in protein levels may be assessedusing proteomic techniques including but not limited to Western blot,immunohistochemical staining, enzyme linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA),and mass spectrometry. Alternatively, the AD-related proteins may beidentified by obtaining gene expression profiles of the genes encodingthe proteins using genomic techniques including but not limited to DNAmicroarray analysis, serial analysis of gene expression (SAGE), andquantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (Q-PCR).

Examples of Alzheimer's disease associated proteins may include the verylow density lipoprotein receptor protein (VLDLR) encoded by the VLDLRgene, the ubiquitin-like modifier activating enzyme 1 (UBA1) encoded bythe UBA1 gene, or the NEDD8-activating enzyme E1 catalytic subunitprotein (UBE1C) encoded by the UBA3 gene, for example.

By way of non-limiting example, proteins associated with AD include butare not limited to the proteins listed as follows: Chromosomal SequenceEncoded Protein ALAS2 Delta-aminolevulinate synthase 2 (ALAS2) ABCA1ATP-binding cassette transporter (ABCA1) ACE Angiotensin I-convertingenzyme (ACE) APOE Apolipoprotein E precursor (APOE) APP amyloidprecursor protein (APP) AQP1 aquaporin 1 protein (AQP1) BIN1 Mycbox-dependent-interacting protein 1 or bridging integrator 1 protein(BIN1) BDNF brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) BTNL8Butyrophilin-like protein 8 (BTNL8) C1ORF49 chromosome 1 open readingframe 49 CDH4 Cadherin-4 CHRNB2 Neuronal acetylcholine receptor subunitbeta-2 CKLFSF2 CKLF-like MARVEL transmembrane domain-containing protein2 (CKLFSF2) CLEC4E C-type lectin domain family 4, member e (CLEC4E) CLUclusterin protein (also known as apoplipoprotein J) CR1 Erythrocytecomplement receptor 1 (CR1, also known as CD35, C3b/C4b receptor andimmune adherence receptor) CR1L Erythrocyte complement receptor 1 (CR1L)CSF3R granulocyte colony-stimulating factor 3 receptor (CSF3R) CST3Cystatin C or cystatin 3 CYP2C Cytochrome P450 2C DAPK1 Death-associatedprotein kinase 1 (DAPK1) ESR1 Estrogen receptor 1 FCAR Fc fragment ofIgA receptor (FCAR, also known as CD89) FCGR3B Fc fragment of IgG, lowaffinity Mb, receptor (FCGR3B or CD16b) FFA2 Free fatty acid receptor 2(FFA2) FGA Fibrinogen (Factor I) GAB2 GRB2-associated-binding protein 2(GAB2) GAB2 GRB2-associated-binding protein 2 (GAB2) GALP Galanin-likepeptide GAPDHS Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase, spermatogenic(GAPDHS) GMPB GMBP HP Haptoglobin (HP) HTR7 5-hydroxytryptamine(serotonin) receptor 7 (adenylate cyclase-coupled) IDE Insulin degradingenzyme IF127 IF127 IFI6 Interferon, alpha-inducible protein 6 (IFI6)IFIT2 Interferon-induced protein with tetratricopeptide repeats 2(IFIT2) IL1RN interleukin-1 receptor antagonist (IL-1RA) IL8RAInterleukin 8 receptor, alpha (IL8RA or CD181) IL8RB Interleukin 8receptor, beta (IL8RB) JAG1 Jagged 1 (JAG1) KCNJ15 Potassiuminwardly-rectifying channel, subfamily J, member 15 (KCNJ15) LRP6Low-density lipoprotein receptor-related protein 6 (LRP6) MAPTmicrotubule-associated protein tau (MAPT) MARK4 MAP/microtubuleaffinity-regulating kinase 4 (MARK4) MPHOSPH1 M-phase phosphoprotein 1MTHFR 5,10-methylenetetrahydrofolate reductase MX2 Interferon-inducedGTP-binding protein Mx2 NBN Nibrin, also known as NBN NCSTN NicastrinNIACR2 Niacin receptor 2 (NIACR2, also known as GPR109B) NMNAT3nicotinamide nucleotide adenylyltransferase 3 NTM Neurotrimin (or HNT)ORM1 Orosmucoid 1 (ORM1) or Alpha-1-acid glycoprotein 1 P2RY13 P2Ypurinoceptor 13 (P2RY13) PBEF1 Nicotinamide phosphoribosyltransferase(NAmPRTase or Nampt) also known as pre-B-cell colony-enhancing factor 1(PBEF1) or visfatin PCK1 Phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase PICALMphosphatidylinositol binding clathrin assembly protein (PICALM) PLAUUrokinase-type plasminogen activator (PLAU) PLXNC1 Plexin C1 (PLXNC1)PRNP Prion protein PSEN1 presenilin 1 protein (PSEN1) PSEN2 presenilin 2protein (PSEN2) PTPRA protein tyrosine phosphatase receptor type Aprotein (PTPRA) RALGPS2 Ral GEF with PH domain and SH3 binding motif 2(RALGPS2) RGSL2 regulator of G-protein signaling like 2 (RGSL2) SELENBP1Selenium binding protein 1 (SELNBP1) SLC25A37 Mitoferrin-1 SORL1sortilin-related receptor L(DLR class) A repeats-containing protein(SORL1) TF Transferrin TFAM Mitochondrial transcription factor A TNFTumor necrosis factor TNFRSF10C Tumor necrosis factor receptorsuperfamily member 10C (TNFRSF10C) TNFSF10 Tumor necrosis factorreceptor superfamily, (TRAIL) member 10a (TNFSF10) UBA1 ubiquitin-likemodifier activating enzyme 1 (UBA1) UBA3 NEDD8-activating enzyme E1catalytic subunit protein (UBE1C) UBB ubiquitin B protein (UBB) UBQLN1Ubiquilin-1 UCHL1 ubiquitin carboxyl-terminal esterase L1 protein(UCHL1) UCHL3 ubiquitin carboxyl-terminal hydrolase isozyme L3 protein(UCHL3) VLDLR very low density lipoprotein receptor protein (VLDLR)

In exemplary embodiments, the proteins associated with AD whosechromosomal sequence is edited may be the very low density lipoproteinreceptor protein (VLDLR) encoded by the VLDLR gene, the ubiquitin-likemodifier activating enzyme 1 (UBA1) encoded by the UBA1 gene, theNEDD8-activating enzyme E1 catalytic subunit protein (UBE1C) encoded bythe UBA3 gene, the aquaporin 1 protein (AQP1) encoded by the AQP1 gene,the ubiquitin carboxyl-terminal esterase L1 protein (UCHL1) encoded bythe UCHL1 gene, the ubiquitin carboxyl-terminal hydrolase isozyme L3protein (UCHL3) encoded by the UCHL3 gene, the ubiquitin B protein (UBB)encoded by the UBB gene, the microtubule-associated protein tau (MAPT)encoded by the MAPT gene, the protein tyrosine phosphatase receptor typeA protein (PTPRA) encoded by the PTPRA gene, the phosphatidylinositolbinding clathrin assembly protein (PICALM) encoded by the PICALM gene,the clusterin protein (also known as apoplipoprotein J) encoded by theCLU gene, the presenilin 1 protein encoded by the PSEN1 gene, thepresenilin 2 protein encoded by the PSEN2 gene, the sortilin-relatedreceptor L(DLR class) A repeats-containing protein (SORL1) proteinencoded by the SORL1 gene, the amyloid precursor protein (APP) encodedby the APP gene, the Apolipoprotein E precursor (APOE) encoded by theAPOE gene, or the brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) encoded bythe BDNF gene. In an exemplary embodiment, the genetically modifiedanimal is a rat, and the edited chromosomal sequence encoding theprotein associated with AD is as as follows: APP amyloid precursorprotein (APP) NM_019288 AQP1 aquaporin 1 protein (AQP1) NM_012778 BDNFBrain-derived neurotrophic factor NM_012513 CLU clusterin protein (alsoknown as NM_053021 apoplipoprotein J) MAPT microtubule-associatedprotein NM_017212 tau (MAPT) PICALM phosphatidylinositol bindingNM_053554 clathrin assembly protein (PICALM) PSEN1 presenilin 1 protein(PSEN1) NM_019163 PSEN2 presenilin 2 protein (PSEN2) NM_031087 PTPRAprotein tyrosine phosphatase NM_012763 receptor type A protein (PTPRA)SORL1 sortilin-related receptor L(DLR NM_053519, class) Arepeats-containing XM_001065506, protein (SORL1) XM_217115 UBA1ubiquitin-like modifier activating NM_001014080 enzyme 1 (UBA1) UBA3NEDD8-activating enzyme E1 NM_057205 catalytic subunit protein (UBE1C)UBB ubiquitin B protein (UBB) NM_138895 UCHL1 ubiquitincarboxyl-terminal NM_017237 esterase L1 protein (UCHL1) UCHL3 ubiquitincarboxyl-terminal NM_001110165 hydrolase isozyme L3 protein (UCHL3)VLDLR very low density lipoprotein NM_013155 receptor protein (VLDLR)

The animal or cell may comprise 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12,13, 14, 15 or more disrupted chromosomal sequences encoding a proteinassociated with AD and zero, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13,14, 15 or more chromosomally integrated sequences encoding a proteinassociated with AD.

The edited or integrated chromosomal sequence may be modified to encodean altered protein associated with AD. A number of mutations inAD-related chromosomal sequences have been associated with AD. Forinstance, the V7171 (i.e. valine at position 717 is changed toisoleucine) missense mutation in APP causes familial AD. Multiplemutations in the presenilin-1 protein, such as H163R (i.e. histidine atposition 163 is changed to arginine), A246E (i.e. alanine at position246 is changed to glutamate), L286V (i.e. leucine at position 286 ischanged to valine) and C410Y (i.e. cysteine at position 410 is changedto tyrosine) cause familial Alzheimer's type 3. Mutations in thepresenilin-2 protein, such as N141 I (i.e. asparagine at position 141 ischanged to isoleucine), M239V (i.e. methionine at position 239 ischanged to valine), and D439A (i.e. aspartate at position 439 is changedto alanine) cause familial Alzheimer's type 4. Other associations ofgenetic variants in AD-associated genes and disease are known in theart. See, for example, Waring et al. (2008) Arch. Neurol. 65:329-334,the disclosure of which is incorporated by reference herein in itsentirety.

Examples of proteins associated Autism Spectrum Disorder may include thebenzodiazapine receptor (peripheral) associated protein 1 (BZRAP1)encoded by the BZRAP1 gene, the AF4/FMR2 family member 2 protein (AFF2)encoded by the AFF2 gene (also termed MFR2), the fragile X mentalretardation autosomal homolog 1 protein (FXR1) encoded by the FXR1 gene,or the fragile X mental retardation autosomal homolog 2 protein (FXR2)encoded by the FXR2 gene, for example.

Examples of proteins associated Macular Degeneration may include theATP-binding cassette, sub-family A (ABC1) member 4 protein (ABCA4)encoded by the ABCR gene, the apolipoprotein E protein (APOE) encoded bythe APOE gene, or the chemokine (C-C motif) Ligand 2 protein (CCL2)encoded by the CCL2 gene, for example.

Examples of proteins associated Schizophrenia may include NRG1, ErbB4,CPLX1, TPH1, TPH2, NRXN1, GSK3A, BDNF, DISC1, GSK3B, and combinationsthereof.

Examples of proteins involved in tumor suppression may include ATM(ataxia telangiectasia mutated), ATR (ataxia telangiectasia and Rad3related), EGFR (epidermal growth factor receptor), ERBB2 (v-erb-b2erythroblastic leukemia viral oncogene homolog 2), ERBB3 (v-erb-b2erythroblastic leukemia viral oncogene homolog 3), ERBB4 (v-erb-b2erythroblastic leukemia viral oncogene homolog 4), Notch 1, Notch2,Notch 3, or Notch 4, for example.

Examples of proteins associated with a secretase disorder may includePSENEN (presenilin enhancer 2 homolog (C. elegans)), CTSB (cathepsin B),PSEN1 (presenilin 1), APP (amyloid beta (A4) precursor protein), APH1B(anterior pharynx defective 1 homolog B (C. elegans)), PSEN2 (presenilin2 (Alzheimer disease 4)), or BACE1 (beta-site APP-cleaving enzyme 1),for example.

For example, US Patent Publication No. 20110023146, describes use ofzinc finger nucleases to genetically modify cells, animals and proteinsassociated with secretase-associated disorders. Secretases are essentialfor processing pre-proteins into their biologically active forms.Defects in various components of the secretase pathways contribute tomany disorders, particularly those with hallmark amyloidogenesis oramyloid plaques, such as Alzheimer's disease (AD).

A secretase disorder and the proteins associated with these disordersare a diverse set of proteins that effect susceptibility for numerousdisorders, the presence of the disorder, the severity of the disorder,or any combination thereof. The present disclosure comprises editing ofany chromosomal sequences that encode proteins associated with asecretase disorder. The proteins associated with a secretase disorderare typically selected based on an experimental association of thesecretase—related proteins with the development of a secretase disorder.For example, the production rate or circulating concentration of aprotein associated with a secretase disorder may be elevated ordepressed in a population with a secretase disorder relative to apopulation without a secretase disorder. Differences in protein levelsmay be assessed using proteomic techniques including but not limited toWestern blot, immunohistochemical staining, enzyme linked immunosorbentassay (ELISA), and mass spectrometry. Alternatively, the proteinassociated with a secretase disorder may be identified by obtaining geneexpression profiles of the genes encoding the proteins using genomictechniques including but not limited to DNA microarray analysis, serialanalysis of gene expression (SAGE), and quantitative real-timepolymerase chain reaction (Q-PCR).

By way of non-limiting example, proteins associated with a secretasedisorder include PSENEN (presenilin enhancer 2 homolog (C. elegans)),CTSB (cathepsin B), PSEN1 (presenilin 1), APP (amyloid beta (A4)precursor protein), APH1B (anterior pharynx defective 1 homolog B (C.elegans)), PSEN2 (presenilin 2 (Alzheimer disease 4)), BACE1 (beta-siteAPP-cleaving enzyme 1), ITM2B (integral membrane protein 2B), CTSD(cathepsin D), NOTCH1 (Notch homolog 1, translocation-associated(Drosophila)), TNF (tumor necrosis factor (TNF superfamily, member 2)),INS (insulin), DYT10 (dystonia 10), ADAM17 (ADAM metallopeptidase domain17), APOE (apolipoprotein E), ACE (angiotensin I converting enzyme(peptidyl-dipeptidase A) 1), STN (statin), TP53 (tumor protein p53), IL6(interleukin 6 (interferon, beta 2)), NGFR (nerve growth factor receptor(TNFR superfamily, member 16)), IL1B (interleukin 1, beta), ACHE(acetylcholinesterase (Yt blood group)), CTNNB1 (catenin(cadherin-associated protein), beta 1, 88 kDa), IGF1 (insulin-likegrowth factor 1 (somatomedin C)), IFNG (interferon, gamma), NRG1(neuregulin 1), CASP3 (caspase 3, apoptosis-related cysteine peptidase),MAPK1 (mitogen-activated protein kinase 1), CDH1 (cadherin 1, type 1,E-cadherin (epithelial)), APBB1 (amyloid beta (A4) precursorprotein-binding, family B, member 1 (Fe65)), HMGCR(3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-Coenzyme A reductase), CREB1 (cAMPresponsive element binding protein 1), PTGS2 (prostaglandin-endoperoxidesynthase 2 (prostaglandin G/H synthase and cyclooxygenase)), HES1 (hairyand enhancer of split 1, (Drosophila)), CAT (catalase), TGFB1(transforming growth factor, beta 1), ENO2 (enolase 2 (gamma,neuronal)), ERBB4 (v-erb-a erythroblastic leukemia viral oncogenehomolog 4 (avian)), TRAPPC10 (trafficking protein particle complex 10),MAOB (monoamine oxidase B), NGF (nerve growth factor (betapolypeptide)), MMP12 (matrix metallopeptidase 12 (macrophage elastase)),JAG1 (jagged 1 (Alagille syndrome)), CD40LG (CD40 ligand), PPARG(peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma), FGF2 (fibroblastgrowth factor 2 (basic)), IL3 (interleukin 3 (colony-stimulating factor,multiple)), LRP1 (low density lipoprotein receptor-related protein 1),NOTCH4 (Notch homolog 4 (Drosophila)), MAPK8 (mitogen-activated proteinkinase 8), PREP (prolyl endopeptidase), NOTCH3 (Notch homolog 3(Drosophila)), PRNP (prion protein), CTSG (cathepsin G), EGF (epidermalgrowth factor (beta-urogastrone)), REN (renin), CD44 (CD44 molecule(Indian blood group)), SELP (selectin P (granule membrane protein 140kDa, antigen CD62)), GHR (growth hormone receptor), ADCYAP1 (adenylatecyclase activating polypeptide 1 (pituitary)), INSR (insulin receptor),GFAP (glial fibrillary acidic protein), MMP3 (matrix metallopeptidase 3(stromelysin 1, progelatinase)), MAPK10 (mitogen-activated proteinkinase 10), SP1 (Sp1 transcription factor), MYC (v-myc myelocytomatosisviral oncogene homolog (avian)), CTSE (cathepsin E), PPARA (peroxisomeproliferator-activated receptor alpha), JUN (jun oncogene), TIMP1 (TIMPmetallopeptidase inhibitor 1), IL5 (interleukin 5 (colony-stimulatingfactor, eosinophil)), ILIA (interleukin 1, alpha), MMP9 (matrixmetallopeptidase 9 (gelatinase B, 92 kDa gelatinase, 92 kDa type IVcollagenase)), HTR4 (5-hydroxytryptamine (serotonin) receptor 4), HSPG2(heparan sulfate proteoglycan 2), KRAS (v-Ki-ras2 Kirsten rat sarcomaviral oncogene homolog), CYCS (cytochrome c, somatic), SMG1 (SMG1homolog, phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase-related kinase (C. elegans)),IL1R1 (interleukin 1 receptor, type I), PROK1 (prokineticin 1), MAPK3(mitogen-activated protein kinase 3), NTRK1 (neurotrophic tyrosinekinase, receptor, type 1), IL13 (interleukin 13), MME (membranemetallo-endopeptidase), TKT (transketolase), CXCR2 (chemokine (C—X—Cmotif) receptor 2), IGF1R (insulin-like growth factor 1 receptor), RARA(retinoic acid receptor, alpha), CREBBP (CREB binding protein), PTGS1(prostaglandin-endoperoxide synthase 1 (prostaglandin G/H synthase andcyclooxygenase)), GALT (galactose-1-phosphate uridylyltransferase),CHRM1 (cholinergic receptor, muscarinic 1), ATXN1 (ataxin 1), PAWR(PRKC, apoptosis, WT1, regulator), NOTCH2 (Notch homolog 2(Drosophila)), M6PR (mannose-6-phosphate receptor (cation dependent)),CYP46A1 (cytochrome P450, family 46, subfamily A, polypeptide 1), CSNK1D (casein kinase 1, delta), MAPK14 (mitogen-activated protein kinase14), PRG2 (proteoglycan 2, bone marrow (natural killer cell activator,eosinophil granule major basic protein)), PRKCA (protein kinase C,alpha), L1 CAM (L1 cell adhesion molecule), CD40 (CD40 molecule, TNFreceptor superfamily member 5), NR1I2 (nuclear receptor subfamily 1,group I, member 2), JAG2 (jagged 2), CTNND1 (catenin(cadherin-associated protein), delta 1), CDH2 (cadherin 2, type 1,N-cadherin (neuronal)), CMA1 (chymase 1, mast cell), SORT1 (sortilin 1),DLK1 (delta-like 1 homolog (Drosophila)), THEM4 (thioesterasesuperfamily member 4), JUP (junction plakoglobin), CD46 (CD46 molecule,complement regulatory protein), CCL11 (chemokine (C-C motif) ligand 11),CAV3 (caveolin 3), RNASE3 (ribonuclease, RNase A family, 3 (eosinophilcationic protein)), HSPA8 (heat shock 70 kDa protein 8), CASP9 (caspase9, apoptosis-related cysteine peptidase), CYP3A4 (cytochrome P450,family 3, subfamily A, polypeptide 4), CCR3 (chemokine (C-C motif)receptor 3), TFAP2A (transcription factor AP-2 alpha (activatingenhancer binding protein 2 alpha)), SCP2 (sterol carrier protein 2),CDK4 (cyclin-dependent kinase 4), HIF1A (hypoxia inducible factor 1,alpha subunit (basic helix-loop-helix transcription factor)), TCF7L2(transcription factor 7-like 2 (T-cell specific, HMG-box)), IL1R2(interleukin 1 receptor, type II), B3GALTL (beta1,3-galactosyltransferase-like), MDM2 (Mdm2 p53 binding protein homolog(mouse)), RELA (v-rel reticuloendotheliosis viral oncogene homolog A(avian)), CASP7 (caspase 7, apoptosis-related cysteine peptidase), IDE(insulin-degrading enzyme), FABP4 (fatty acid binding protein 4,adipocyte), CASK (calcium/calmodulin-dependent serine protein kinase(MAGUK family)), ADCYAP1R1 (adenylate cyclase activating polypeptide 1(pituitary) receptor type I), ATF4 (activating transcription factor 4(tax-responsive enhancer element B67)), PDGFA (platelet-derived growthfactor alpha polypeptide), C21 or f33 (chromosome 21 open reading frame33), SCGS (secretogranin V (7B2 protein)), RNF123 (ring finger protein123), NFKB1 (nuclear factor of kappa light polypeptide gene enhancer inB-cells 1), ERBB2 (v-erb-b2 erythroblastic leukemia viral oncogenehomolog 2, neuro/glioblastoma derived oncogene homolog (avian)), CAV1(caveolin 1, caveolae protein, 22 kDa), MMP7 (matrix metallopeptidase 7(matrilysin, uterine)), TGFA (transforming growth factor, alpha), RXRA(retinoid X receptor, alpha), STX1A (syntaxin 1A (brain)), PSMC4(proteasome (prosome, macropain) 26S subunit, ATPase, 4), P2RY2(purinergic receptor P2Y, G-protein coupled, 2), TNFRSF21 (tumornecrosis factor receptor superfamily, member 21), DLG1 (discs, largehomolog 1 (Drosophila)), NUMBL (numb homolog (Drosophila)-like), SPN(sialophorin), PLSCR1 (phospholipid scramblase 1), UBQLN2 (ubiquilin 2),UBQLN1 (ubiquilin 1), PCSK7 (proprotein convertase subtilisin/kexin type7), SPON1 (spondin 1, extracellular matrix protein), SILV (silverhomolog (mouse)), QPCT (glutaminyl-peptide cyclotransferase), HESS(hairy and enhancer of split 5 (Drosophila)), GCC1 (GRIP and coiled-coildomain containing 1), and any combination thereof.

The genetically modified animal or cell may comprise 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6,7, 8, 9, 10 or more disrupted chromosomal sequences encoding a proteinassociated with a secretase disorder and zero, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8,9, 10 or more chromosomally integrated sequences encoding a disruptedprotein associated with a secretase disorder.

Examples of proteins associated with Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis mayinclude SOD1 (superoxide dismutase 1), ALS2 (amyotrophic lateralsclerosis 2), FUS (fused in sarcoma), TARDBP (TAR DNA binding protein),VAGFA (vascular endothelial growth factor A), VAGFB (vascularendothelial growth factor B), and VAGFC (vascular endothelial growthfactor C), and any combination thereof.

For example, US Patent Publication No. 20110023144, describes use ofzinc finger nucleases to genetically modify cells, animals and proteinsassociated with amyotrophyic lateral sclerosis (ALS) disease. ALS ischaracterized by the gradual steady degeneration of certain nerve cellsin the brain cortex, brain stem, and spinal cord involved in voluntarymovement.

Motor neuron disorders and the proteins associated with these disordersare a diverse set of proteins that effect susceptibility for developinga motor neuron disorder, the presence of the motor neuron disorder, theseverity of the motor neuron disorder or any combination thereof. Thepresent disclosure comprises editing of any chromosomal sequences thatencode proteins associated with ALS disease, a specific motor neurondisorder. The proteins associated with ALS are typically selected basedon an experimental association of ALS-related proteins to ALS. Forexample, the production rate or circulating concentration of a proteinassociated with ALS may be elevated or depressed in a population withALS relative to a population without ALS. Differences in protein levelsmay be assessed using proteomic techniques including but not limited toWestern blot, immunohistochemical staining, enzyme linked immunosorbentassay (ELISA), and mass spectrometry. Alternatively, the proteinsassociated with ALS may be identified by obtaining gene expressionprofiles of the genes encoding the proteins using genomic techniquesincluding but not limited to DNA microarray analysis, serial analysis ofgene expression (SAGE), and quantitative real-time polymerase chainreaction (Q-PCR).

By way of non-limiting example, proteins associated with ALS include butare not limited to the following proteins: SOD1 superoxide dismutase 1,ALS3 amyotrophic lateral soluble sclerosis 3 SETX senataxin ALS5amyotrophic lateral sclerosis 5 FUS fused in sarcoma ALS7 amyotrophiclateral sclerosis 7 ALS2 amyotrophic lateral DPP6 Dipeptidyl-peptidase 6sclerosis 2 NEFH neurofilament, heavy PTGS1 prostaglandin-polypeptideendoperoxide synthase 1 SLC1A2 solute carrier family 1 TNFRSF10B tumornecrosis factor (glial high affinity receptor superfamily, glutamatetransporter), member 10b member 2 PRPH peripherin HSP90AA1 heat shockprotein 90 kDa alpha (cytosolic), class A member 1 GRIA2 glutamatereceptor, IFNG interferon, gamma ionotropic, AMPA 2 S 100B S100 calciumbinding FGF2 fibroblast growth factor 2 protein B AOX1 aldehyde oxidase1 CS citrate synthase TARDBP TAR DNA binding protein TXN thioredoxinRAPH1 Ras association MAP3K5 mitogen-activated protein (RaIGDS/AF-6) andkinase 5 pleckstrin homology domains 1 NBEAL1 neurobeachin-like 1 GPX1glutathione peroxidase 1 ICA1L islet cell autoantigen RAC1 ras-relatedC3 botulinum 1.69 kDa-like toxin substrate 1 MAPT microtubule-associatedITPR2 inositol 1,4,5-protein tau triphosphate receptor, type 2 ALS2CR4amyotrophic lateral GLS glutaminase sclerosis 2 (juvenile) chromosomeregion, candidate 4 ALS2CR8 amyotrophic lateral CNTFR ciliaryneurotrophic factor sclerosis 2 (juvenile) receptor chromosome region,candidate 8 ALS2CR11 amyotrophic lateral FOLH1 folate hydrolase 1sclerosis 2 (juvenile) chromosome region, candidate 11 FAM117B familywith sequence P4HB prolyl 4-hydroxylase, similarity 117, member B betapolypeptide CNTF ciliary neurotrophic factor SQSTM1 sequestosome 1STRADB STE20-related kinase NAIP NLR family, apoptosis adaptor betainhibitory protein YWHAQ tyrosine 3-SLC33A1 solute carrier family 33monooxygenase/tryptoph (acetyl-CoA transporter), an 5-monooxygenasemember 1 activation protein, theta polypeptide TRAK2 traffickingprotein, FIG. 4 FIG. 4 homolog, SAC1 kinesin binding 2 lipid phosphatasedomain containing NIF3L1 NIF3 NGG1 interacting INA internexin neuronalfactor 3-like 1 intermediate filament protein, alpha PARD3B par-3partitioning COX8A cytochrome c oxidase defective 3 homolog B subunitVIIIA CDK15 cyclin-dependent kinase HECW1 HECT, C2 and WW 15 domaincontaining E3 ubiquitin protein ligase 1 NOS1 nitric oxide synthase 1MET met proto-oncogene SOD2 superoxide dismutase 2, HSPB1 heat shock 27kDa mitochondrial protein 1 NEFL neurofilament, light CTSB cathepsin Bpolypeptide ANG angiogenin, HSPA8 heat shock 70 kDa ribonuclease, RNaseA protein 8 family, 5 VAPB VAMP (vesicle-ESR1 estrogen receptor 1associated membrane protein)-associated protein B and C SNCA synuclein,alpha HGF hepatocyte growth factor CAT catalase ACTB actin, beta NEFMneurofilament, medium TH tyrosine hydroxylase polypeptide BCL2 B-cellCLL/lymphoma 2 FAS Fas (TNF receptor superfamily, member 6) CASP3caspase 3, apoptosis-CLU clusterin related cysteine peptidase SMN1survival of motor neuron G6PD glucose-6-phosphate 1, telomericdehydrogenase BAX BCL2-associated X HSF1 heat shock transcriptionprotein factor 1 RNF19A ring finger protein 19A JUN jun oncogeneALS2CR12 amyotrophic lateral HSPA5 heat shock 70 kDa sclerosis 2(juvenile) protein 5 chromosome region, candidate 12 MAPK14mitogen-activated protein IL10 interleukin 10 kinase 14 APEX1 APEXnuclease TXNRD1 thioredoxin reductase 1 (multifunctional DNA repairenzyme) 1 NOS2 nitric oxide synthase 2, TIMP1 TIMP metallopeptidaseinducible inhibitor 1 CASP9 caspase 9, apoptosis-XIAP X-linked inhibitorof related cysteine apoptosis peptidase GLG1 golgi glycoprotein 1 EPOerythropoietin VEGFA vascular endothelial ELN elastin growth factor AGDNF glial cell derived NFE2L2 nuclear factor (erythroid-neurotrophicfactor derived 2)-like 2 SLC6A3 solute carrier family 6 HSPA4 heat shock70 kDa (neurotransmitter protein 4 transporter, dopamine), member 3 APOEapolipoprotein E PSMB8 proteasome (prosome, macropain) subunit, betatype, 8 DCTN1 dynactin 1 TIMP3 TIMP metallopeptidase inhibitor 3 KIFAP3kinesin-associated SLC1A1 solute carrier family 1 protein 3(neuronal/epithelial high affinity glutamate transporter, system Xag),member 1 SMN2 survival of motor neuron CCNC cyclin C 2, centromeric MPP4membrane protein, STUB1 STIP1 homology and U-palmitoylated 4 boxcontaining protein 1 ALS2 amyloid beta (A4) PRDX6 peroxiredoxin 6precursor protein SYP synaptophysin CABIN1 calcineurin binding protein 1CASP1 caspase 1, apoptosis-GART phosphoribosylglycinami related cysteinede formyltransferase, peptidase phosphoribosylglycinami de synthetase,phosphoribosylaminoimi dazole synthetase CDK5 cyclin-dependent kinase 5ATXN3 ataxin 3 RTN4 reticulon 4 C1QB complement component 1, qsubcomponent, B chain VEGFC nerve growth factor HTT huntingtin receptorPARK7 Parkinson disease 7 XDH xanthine dehydrogenase GFAP glialfibrillary acidic MAP2 microtubule-associated protein protein 2 CYCScytochrome c, somatic FCGR3B Fc fragment of IgG, low affinity IIIb, CCScopper chaperone for UBL5 ubiquitin-like 5 superoxide dismutase MMP9matrix metallopeptidase SLC18A3 solute carrier family 18 9 ((vesicularacetylcholine), member 3 TRPM7 transient receptor HSPB2 heat shock 27kDa potential cation channel, protein 2 subfamily M, member 7 AKT1 v-aktmurine thymoma DERL1 Der1-like domain family, viral oncogene homolog 1member 1 CCL2 chemokine (C-C motif) NGRN neugrin, neurite ligand 2outgrowth associated GSR glutathione reductase TPPP3 tubulinpolymerization-promoting protein family member 3 APAF1 apoptoticpeptidase BTBD10 BTB (POZ) domain activating factor 1 containing 10GLUD1 glutamate CXCR4 chemokine (C—X—C motif) dehydrogenase 1 receptor 4SLC1A3 solute carrier family 1 FLT1 fms-related tyrosine (glial highaffinity glutamate transporter), member 3 kinase 1 PON1 paraoxonase 1 ARandrogen receptor LIF leukemia inhibitory factor ERBB3 v-erb-b2erythroblastic leukemia viral oncogene homolog 3 LGALS1 lectin,galactoside-CD44 CD44 molecule binding, soluble, 1 TP53 tumor proteinp53 TLR3 toll-like receptor 3 GRIA1 glutamate receptor, GAPDHglyceraldehyde-3-ionotropic, AMPA 1 phosphate dehydrogenase GRIK1glutamate receptor, DES desmin ionotropic, kainate 1 CHAT cholineacetyltransferase FLT4 fms-related tyrosine kinase 4 CHMP2B chromatinmodifying BAG1 BCL2-associated protein 2B athanogene MT3 metallothionein3 CHRNA4 cholinergic receptor, nicotinic, alpha 4 GSS glutathionesynthetase BAK1 BCL2-antagonist/killer 1 KDR kinase insert domain GSTP1glutathione S-transferase receptor (a type III pi 1 receptor tyrosinekinase) OGG1 8-oxoguanine DNA IL6 interleukin 6 (interferon, glycosylasebeta 2).

The animal or cell may comprise 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10 or moredisrupted chromosomal sequences encoding a protein associated with ALSand zero, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10 or more chromosomally integratedsequences encoding the disrupted protein associated with ALS. Preferredproteins associated with ALS include SOD1 (superoxide dismutase 1), ALS2(amyotrophic lateral sclerosis 2), FUS (fused in sarcoma), TARDBP (TARDNA binding protein), VAGFA (vascular endothelial growth factor A),VAGFB (vascular endothelial growth factor B), and VAGFC (vascularendothelial growth factor C), and any combination thereof.

Examples of proteins associated with prion diseases may include SOD1(superoxide dismutase 1), ALS2 (amyotrophic lateral sclerosis 2), FUS(fused in sarcoma), TARDBP (TAR DNA binding protein), VAGFA (vascularendothelial growth factor A), VAGFB (vascular endothelial growth factorB), and VAGFC (vascular endothelial growth factor C), and anycombination thereof.

Examples of proteins related to neurodegenerative conditions in priondisorders may include A2M (Alpha-2-Macroglobulin), AATF (Apoptosisantagonizing transcription factor), ACPP (Acid phosphatase prostate),ACTA2 (Actin alpha 2 smooth muscle aorta), ADAM22 (ADAM metallopeptidasedomain), ADORA3 (Adenosine A3 receptor), or ADRA1D (Alpha-1D adrenergicreceptor for Alpha-1D adrenoreceptor), for example.

Examples of proteins associated with Immunodeficiency may include A2M[alpha-2-macroglobulin]; AANAT [arylalkylamine N-acetyltransferase];ABCA1 [ATP-binding cassette, sub-family A (ABC1), member 1]; ABCA2[ATP-binding cassette, sub-family A (ABC1), member 2]; or ABCA3[ATP-binding cassette, sub-family A (ABC1), member 3]; for example.

Examples of proteins associated with Trinucleotide Repeat Disordersinclude AR (androgen receptor), FMR1 (fragile X mental retardation 1),HTT (huntingtin), or DMPK (dystrophia myotonica-protein kinase), FXN(frataxin), ATXN2 (ataxin 2), for example.

Examples of proteins associated with Neurotransmission Disorders includeSST (somatostatin), NOS1 (nitric oxide synthase 1 (neuronal)), ADRA2A(adrenergic, alpha-2A-, receptor), ADRA2C (adrenergic, alpha-2C-,receptor), TACR1 (tachykinin receptor 1), or HTR2c (5-hydroxytryptamine(serotonin) receptor 2C), for example.

Examples of neurodevelopmental-associated sequences include A2BP1[ataxin 2-binding protein 1], AADAT [aminoadipate aminotransferase],AANAT [arylalkylamine N-acetyltransferase], ABAT [4-aminobutyrateaminotransferase], ABCA1 [ATP-binding cassette, sub-family A (ABC1),member 1], or ABCA13 [ATP-binding cassette, sub-family A (ABC1), member13], for example.

Further examples of preferred conditions treatable with the presentsystem include may be selected from: Aicardi-Goutiéres Syndrome;Alexander Disease; Allan-Herndon-Dudley Syndrome; POLG-RelatedDisorders; Alpha-Mannosidosis (Type II and III); Alström Syndrome;Angelman; Syndrome; Ataxia-Telangiectasia; NeuronalCeroid-Lipofuscinoses; Beta-Thalassemia; Bilateral Optic Atrophy and(Infantile) Optic Atrophy Type 1; Retinoblastoma (bilateral); CanavanDisease; Cerebrooculofacioskeletal Syndrome 1 [COF S1]; CerebrotendinousXanthomatosis; Cornelia de Lange Syndrome; MAPT-Related Disorders;Genetic Prion Diseases; Dravet Syndrome; Early-Onset Familial AlzheimerDisease; Friedreich Ataxia [FRDA]; Fryns Syndrome; Fucosidosis; FukuyamaCongenital Muscular Dystrophy; Galactosialidosis; Gaucher Disease;Organic Acidemias; Hemophagocytic Lymphohistiocytosis;Hutchinson-Gilford Progeria Syndrome; Mucolipidosis II; Infantile FreeSialic Acid Storage Disease; PLA2G6-Associated Neurodegeneration;Jervell and Lange-Nielsen Syndrome; Junctional Epidermolysis Bullosa;Huntington Disease; Krabbe Disease (Infantile); MitochondrialDNA-Associated Leigh Syndrome and NARP; Lesch-Nyhan Syndrome;LIS1-Associated Lissencephaly; Lowe Syndrome; Maple Syrup Urine Disease;MECP2 Duplication Syndrome; ATP7A-Related Copper Transport Disorders;LAMA2-Related Muscular Dystrophy; Arylsulfatase A Deficiency;Mucopolysaccharidosis Types I, II or III; Peroxisome BiogenesisDisorders, Zellweger Syndrome Spectrum; Neurodegeneration with BrainIron Accumulation Disorders; Acid Sphingomyelinase Deficiency;Niemann-Pick Disease Type C; Glycine Encephalopathy; ARX-RelatedDisorders; Urea Cycle Disorders; COL1A1/2-Related OsteogenesisImperfecta; Mitochondrial DNA Deletion Syndromes; PLP1-RelatedDisorders; Perry Syndrome; Phelan-McDermid Syndrome; Glycogen StorageDisease Type II (Pompe Disease) (Infantile); MAPT-Related Disorders;MECP2-Related Disorders; Rhizomelic Chondrodysplasia Punctata Type 1;Roberts Syndrome; Sandhoff Disease; Schindler Disease-Type 1; AdenosineDeaminase Deficiency; Smith-Lemli-Opitz Syndrome; Spinal MuscularAtrophy; Infantile-Onset Spinocerebellar Ataxia; Hexosaminidase ADeficiency; Thanatophoric Dysplasia Type 1; Collagen Type VI-RelatedDisorders; Usher Syndrome Type I; Congenital Muscular Dystrophy;Wolf-Hirschhorn Syndrome; Lysosomal Acid Lipase Deficiency; andXeroderma Pigmentosum.

As will be apparent, it is envisaged that the present system can be usedto target any polynucleotide sequence of interest. Some examples ofconditions or diseases that might be usefully treated using the presentsystem are included in the Tables above and examples of genes currentlyassociated with those conditions are also provided there. However, thegenes exemplified are not exhaustive.

For example, “wild type StCas9” refers to wild type Cas9 from Sthermophilus, the protein sequence of which is given in the SwissProtdatabase under accession number G3ECR1. Similarly, S pyogenes Cas9 isincluded in SwissProt under accession number Q99ZW2.

EXAMPLES

The following examples are given for the purpose of illustrating variousembodiments of the invention and are not meant to limit the presentinvention in any fashion. The present examples, along with the methodsdescribed herein are presently representative of preferred embodiments,are exemplary, and are not intended as limitations on the scope of theinvention. Changes therein and other uses which are encompassed withinthe spirit of the invention as defined by the scope of the claims willoccur to those skilled in the art.

Example 1: CRISPR Complex Activity in the Nucleus of a Eukaryotic Cell

An example type II CRISPR system is the type II CRISPR locus fromStreptococcus pyogenes SF370, which contains a cluster of four genesCas9, Casl, Cas2, and Csnl, as well as two non-coding RNA elements,tracrRNA and a characteristic array of repetitive sequences (directrepeats) interspaced by short stretches of non-repetitive sequences(spacers, about 30 bp each). In this system, targeted DNA double-strandbreak (DSB) is generated in four sequential steps (FIG. 2A). First, twonon-coding RNAs, the pre-crRNA array and tracrRNA, are transcribed fromthe CRISPR locus. Second, tracrRNA hybridizes to the direct repeats ofpre-crRNA, which is then processed into mature crRNAs containingindividual spacer sequences. Third, the mature crRNA:tracrRNA complexdirects Cas9 to the DNA target consisting of the protospacer and thecorresponding PAM via heteroduplex formation between the spacer regionof the crRNA and the protospacer DNA. Finally, Cas9 mediates cleavage oftarget DNA upstream of PAM to create a DSB within the protospacer (FIG.2A). This example describes an example process for adapting thisRNA-programmable nuclease system to direct CRISPR complex activity inthe nuclei of eukaryotic cells.

Cell Culture and Transfection

Human embryonic kidney (HEK) cell line HEK 293FT (Life Technologies) wasmaintained in Dulbecco's modified Eagle's Medium (DMEM) supplementedwith 10% fetal bovine serum (HyClone), 2 mM GlutaMAX (LifeTechnologies), 100 U/mL penicillin, and 100 μg/mL streptomycin at 37° C.with 5% CO₂ incubation. Mouse neuro2A (N2A) cell line (ATCC) wasmaintained with DMEM supplemented with 5% fetal bovine serum (HyClone),2 mM GlutaMAX (Life Technologies), 100 U/mL penicillin, and 100 μg/mLstreptomycin at 37° C. with 5% CO₂.

HEK 293FT or N2A cells were seeded into 24-well plates (Corning) one dayprior to transfection at a density of 200,000 cells per well. Cells weretransfected using Lipofectamine 2000 (Life Technologies) following themanufacturer's recommended protocol. For each well of a 24-well plate atotal of 800 ng of plasmids were used.

Surveyor assay and sequencing analysis for genome modification

HEK 293FT or N2A cells were transfected with plasmid DNA as describedabove. After transfection, the cells were incubated at 37° C. for 72hours before genomic DNA extraction. Genomic DNA was extracted using theQuickExtract DNA extraction kit (Epicentre) following the manufacturer'sprotocol. Briefly, cells were resuspended in QuickExtract solution andincubated at 65° C. for 15 minutes and 98° C. for 10 minutes. Extractedgenomic DNA was immediately processed or stored at −20° C.

The genomic region surrounding a CRISPR target site for each gene wasPCR amplified, and products were purified using QiaQuick Spin Column(Qiagen) following manufacturer's protocol. A total of 400 ng of thepurified PCR products were mixed with 2 μl, 10λ Taq polymerase PCRbuffer (Enzymatics) and ultrapure water to a final volume of 20 μl, andsubjected to a re-annealing process to enable heteroduplex formation:95° C. for 10 min, 95° C. to 85° C. ramping at −2° C./s, 85° C. to 25°C. at −0.25° C./s, and 25° C. hold for 1 minute. After re-annealing,products were treated with Surveyor nuclease and Surveyor enhancer S(Transgenomics) following the manufacturer's recommended protocol, andanalyzed on 4-20% Novex TBE poly-acrylamide gels (Life Technologies).Gels were stained with SYBR Gold DNA stain (Life Technologies) for 30minutes and imaged with a Gel Doc gel imaging system (Bio-rad).Quantification was based on relative band intensities, as a measure ofthe fraction of cleaved DNA. FIG. 7 provides a schematic illustration ofthis Surveyor assay.

Restriction fragment length polymorphism assay for detection ofhomologous recombination.

HEK 293FT and N2A cells were transfected with plasmid DNA, and incubatedat 37° C. for 72 hours before genomic DNA extraction as described above.The target genomic region was PCR amplified using primers outside thehomology arms of the homologous recombination (HR) template. PCRproducts were separated on a 1% agarose gel and extracted with MinEluteGelExtraction Kit (Qiagen). Purified products were digested with HindIII(Fermentas) and analyzed on a 6% Novex TBE poly-acrylamide gel (LifeTechnologies).

RNA Secondary Structure Prediction and Analysis

RNA secondary structure prediction was performed using the onlinewebserver RNAfold developed at Institute for Theoretical Chemistry atthe University of Vienna, using the centroid structure predictionalgorithm (see e.g. A. R. Gruber et al., 2008, Cell 106(1): 23-24; andPA Carr and GM Church, 2009, Nature Biotechnology 27(12): 1151-62).

RNA Purification

HEK 293FT cells were maintained and transfected as stated above. Cellswere harvested by trypsinization followed by washing in phosphatebuffered saline (PBS). Total cell RNA was extracted with TRI reagent(Sigma) following manufacturer's protocol. Extracted total RNA wasquantified using Naonodrop (Thermo Scientific) and normalized to sameconcentration.

Northern blot analysis of crRNA and tracrRNA expression in mammaliancells

RNAs were mixed with equal volumes of 2× loading buffer (Ambion), heatedto 95° C. for 5 min, chilled on ice for 1 min, and then loaded onto 8%denaturing polyacrylamide gels (SequaGel, National Diagnostics) afterpre-running the gel for at least 30 minutes. The samples wereelectrophoresed for 1.5 hours at 40 W limit. Afterwards, the RNA wastransferred to Hybond N+ membrane (GE Healthcare) at 300 mA in asemi-dry transfer apparatus (Bio-rad) at room temperature for 1.5 hours.The RNA was crosslinked to the membrane using autocrosslink button onStratagene UV Crosslinker the Stratalinker (Stratagene). The membranewas pre-hybridized in ULTRAhyb-Oligo Hybridization Buffer (Ambion) for30 min with rotation at 42° C., and probes were then added andhybridized overnight. Probes were ordered from IDT and labeled with[gamma-³²P] ATP (Perkin Elmer) with T4 polynucleotide kinase (NewEngland Biolabs). The membrane was washed once with pre-warmed (42° C.)2×SSC, 0.5% SDS for 1 min followed by two 30 minute washes at 42° C. Themembrane was exposed to a phosphor screen for one hour or overnight atroom temperature and then scanned with a phosphorimager (Typhoon).

Bacterial CRISPR System Construction and Evaluation

CRISPR locus elements, including tracrRNA, Cas9, and leader were PCRamplified from Streptococcus pyogenes SF370 genomic DNA with flankinghomology arms for Gibson Assembly. Two BsaI type IIS sites wereintroduced in between two direct repeats to facilitate easy insertion ofspacers (FIG. 8). PCR products were cloned into EcoRV-digested pACYC184downstream of the tet promoter using Gibson Assembly Master Mix (NEB).Other endogenous CRISPR system elements were omitted, with the exceptionof the last 50 bp of Csn2. Oligos (Integrated DNA Technology) encodingspacers with complimentary overhangs were cloned into the BsaI-digestedvector pDC000 (NEB) and then ligated with T7 ligase (Enzymatics) togenerate pCRISPR plasmids. Challenge plasmids containing spacers withPAM

expression in mammalian cells (expression constructs illustrated in FIG.6A, with functionality as determined by results of the Surveyor assayshown in FIG. 6B). Transcription start sites are marked as +1, andtranscription terminator and the sequence probed by northern blot arealso indicated. Expression of processed tracrRNA was also confirmed byNorthern blot. FIG. 6C shows results of a Northern blot analysis oftotal RNA extracted from 293FT cells transfected with U6 expressionconstructs carrying long or short tracrRNA, as well as SpCas9 andDR-EMX1(1)-DR. Left and right panels are from 293FT cells transfectedwithout or with SpRNase III, respectively. U6 indicate loading controlblotted with a probe targeting human U6 snRNA. Transfection of the shorttracrRNA expression construct led to abundant levels of the processedform of tracrRNA (˜75 bp). Very low amounts of long tracrRNA aredetected on the Northern blot.

To promote precise transcriptional initiation, the RNA polymeraseIII-based U6 promoter was selected to drive the expression of tracrRNA(FIG. 2C). Similarly, a U6 promoter-based construct was developed toexpress a pre-crRNA array consisting of a single spacer flanked by twodirect repeats (DRs, also encompassed by the term “tracr-matesequences”; FIG. 2C). The initial spacer was designed to target a33-base-pair (bp) target site (30-bp protospacer plus a 3-bp CRISPRmotif (PAM) sequence satisfying the NGG recognition motif of Cas9) inthe human EMXJ locus (FIG. 2C), a key gene in the development of thecerebral cortex.

To test whether heterologous expression of the CRISPR system (SpCas9,SpRNase III, tracrRNA, and pre-crRNA) in mammalian cells can achievetargeted cleavage of mammalian chromosomes, HEK 293FT cells weretransfected with combinations of CRISPR components. Since DSBs inmammalian nuclei are partially repaired by the non-homologous endjoining (NHEJ) pathway, which leads to the formation of indels, theSurveyor assay was used to detect potential cleavage activity at thetarget EMX1 locus (FIG. 7) (see e.g. Guschin et al., 2010, Methods MolBiol 649: 247). Co-transfection of all four CRISPR components was ableto induce up to 5.0% cleavage in the protospacer (see FIG. 2D).Co-transfection of all CRISPR components minus SpRNase III also inducedup to 4.7% indel in the protospacer, suggesting that there may beendogenous mammalian RNases that are capable of assisting with crRNAmaturation, such as for example the related Dicer and Drosha enzymes.Removing any of the remaining three components abolished the genomecleavage activity of the CRISPR system (FIG. 2D). Sanger sequencing ofamplicons containing the target locus verified the cleavage activity: in43 sequenced clones, 5 mutated alleles (11.6%) were found. Similarexperiments using a variety of guide sequences produced indelpercentages as high as 29% (see FIGS. 3-6, 10, and 11). These resultsdefine a three-component system for efficient CRISPR-mediated genomemodification in mammalian cells. To optimize the cleavage efficiency,Applicants also tested whether different isoforms of tracrRNA affectedthe cleavage efficiency and found that, in this example system, only theshort (89-bp) transcript form was able to mediate cleavage of the humanEMX1 genomic locus (FIG. 6B).

FIG. 12 provides an additional Northern blot analysis of crRNAprocessing in mammalian cells. FIG. 12A illustrates a schematic showingthe expression vector for a single spacer flanked by two direct repeats(DR-EMX1(1)-DR). The 30 bp spacer targeting the human EMX1 locusprotospacer 1 (see FIG. 6) and the direct repeat sequences are shown inthe sequence beneath FIG. 12A. The line indicates the region whosereverse-complement sequence was used to generate Northern blot probesfor EMX1(1) crRNA detection. FIG. 12B shows a Northern blot analysis oftotal RNA extracted from 293FT cells transfected with U6 expressionconstructs carrying DR-EMX1(1)-DR. Left and right panels are from 293FTcells transfected without or with SpRNase III respectively.DR-EMX1(1)-DR was processed into mature crRNAs only in the presence ofSpCas9 and short tracrRNA and was not dependent on the presence ofSpRNase III. The mature crRNA detected from transfected 293FT total RNAis ˜33 bp and is shorter than the 39-42 bp mature crRNA from S.pyogenes. These results demonstrate that a CRISPR system can betransplanted into eukaryotic cells and reprogrammed to facilitatecleavage of endogenous mammalian target polynucleotides.

FIG. 2 illustrates the bacterial CRISPR system described in thisexample. FIG. 2A illustrates a schematic showing the CRISPR locus 1 fromStreptococcus pyogenes SF370 and a proposed mechanism of CRISPR-mediatedDNA cleavage by this system. Mature crRNA processed from the directrepeat-spacer array directs Cas9 to genomic targets consisting ofcomplimentary protospacers and a protospacer-adjacent motif (PAM). Upontarget-spacer base pairing, Cas9 mediates a double-strand break in thetarget DNA. FIG. 2B illustrates engineering of S. pyogenes Cas9 (SpCas9)and RNase III (SpRNase III) with nuclear localization signals (NLSs) toenable import into the mammalian nucleus. FIG. 2C illustrates mammalianexpression of SpCas9 and SpRNase III driven by the constitutive EF1apromoter and tracrRNA and pre-crRNA array (DR-Spacer-DR) driven by theRNA Pol3 promoter U6 to promote precise transcription initiation andtermination. A protospacer from the human EMX1 locus with a satisfactoryPAM sequence is used as the spacer in the pre-crRNA array. FIG. 2Dillustrates surveyor nuclease assay for SpCas9-mediated minor insertionsand deletions. SpCas9 was expressed with and without SpRNase III,tracrRNA, and a pre-crRNA array carrying the EMX1-target spacer. FIG. 2Eillustrates a schematic representation of base pairing between targetlocus and EMX1-targeting crRNA, as well as an example chromatogramshowing a micro deletion adjacent to the SpCas9 cleavage site. FIG. 2Fillustrates mutated alleles identified from sequencing analysis of 43clonal amplicons showing a variety of micro insertions and deletions.Dashes indicate deleted bases, and non-aligned or mismatched basesindicate insertions or mutations. Scale bar=10 μm.

To further simplify the three-component system, a chimericcrRNA-tracrRNA hybrid design was adapted, where a mature crRNA(comprising a guide sequence) may be fused to a partial tracrRNA via astem-loop to mimic the natural crRNA:tracrRNA duplex. To increaseco-delivery efficiency, a bicistronic expression vector was created todrive co-expression of a chimeric RNA and SpCas9 in transfected cells.In parallel, the bicistronic vectors were used to express a pre-crRNA(DR-guide sequence-DR) with SpCas9, to induce processing into crRNA witha separately expressed tracrRNA (compare FIG. 11B top and bottom). FIG.8 provides schematic illustrations of bicistronic expression vectors forpre-crRNA array (FIG. 8A) or chimeric crRNA (represented by the shortline downstream of the guide sequence insertion site and upstream of theEF1α promoter in FIG. 8B) with hSpCas9, showing location of variouselements and the point of guide sequence insertion. The expandedsequence around the location of the guide sequence insertion site inFIG. 8B also shows a partial DR sequence (GTTTTAGAGCTA SEQ ID NO: 90)and a partial tracrRNA sequence (TAGCAAGTTAAAATAAGGCTAGTCCGTTTTT SEQ IDNO: 91). Guide sequences can be inserted between Bbsl sites usingannealed oligonucleotides. Sequence design for the oligonucleotides areshown below the schematic illustrations in FIG. 8, with appropriateligation adapters indicated. WPRE represents the Woodchuck hepatitisvirus post-transcriptional regulatory element. The efficiency ofchimeric RNA-mediated cleavage was tested by targeting the same EMX1locus described above. Using both Surveyor assay and Sanger sequencingof amplicons, Applicants confirmed that the chimeric RNA designfacilitates cleavage of human EMX1 locus with approximately a 4.7%modification rate (FIG. 3).

Generalizability of CRISPR-mediated cleavage in eukaryotic cells wastested by targeting additional genomic loci in both human and mousecells by designing chimeric RNA targeting multiple sites in the humanEMX1 and PVALB, as well as the mouse Th loci. FIG. 13 illustrates theselection of some additional targeted protospacers in human PVALB (FIG.13A) and mouse Th (FIG. 13B) loci. Schematics of the gene loci and thelocation of three protospacers within the last exon of each areprovided. The underlined sequences include 30 bp of protospacer sequenceand 3 bp at the 3′ end corresponding to the PAM sequences. Protospacerson the sense and anti-sense strands are indicated above and below theDNA sequences, respectively. A modification rate of 6.3% and 0.75% wasachieved for the human PVALB and mouse Th loci respectively,demonstrating the broad applicability of the CRISPR system in modifyingdifferent loci across multiple organisms (FIG. 5). While cleavage wasonly detected with one out of three spacers for each locus using thechimeric constructs, all target sequences were cleaved with efficiencyof indel production reaching 27% when using the co-expressed pre-crRNAarrangement (FIGS. 6 and 13).

FIG. 11 provides a further illustration that SpCas9 can be reprogrammedto target multiple genomic loci in mammalian cells. FIG. 11A provides aschematic of the human EMX1 locus showing the location of fiveprotospacers, indicated by the underlined sequences. FIG. 11B provides aschematic of the pre-crRNA/trcrRNA complex showing hybridization betweenthe direct repeat region of the pre-crRNA and tracrRNA (top), and aschematic of a chimeric RNA design comprising a 20 bp guide sequence,and tracr mate and tracr sequences consisting of partial direct repeatand tracrRNA sequences hybridized in a hairpin structure (bottom).Results of a Surveyor assay comparing the efficacy of Cas9-mediatedcleavage at five protospacers in the human EMX1 locus is illustrated inFIG. 11C. Each protospacer is targeted using either processedpre-crRNA/tracrRNA complex (crRNA) or chimeric RNA (chiRNA).

Since the secondary structure of RNA can be crucial for intermolecularinteractions, a structure prediction algorithm based on minimum freeenergy and Boltzmann-weighted structure ensemble was used to compare theputative secondary structure of all guide sequences used in the genometargeting experiment (see e.g. Gruber et al., 2008, Nucleic AcidsResearch, 36: W70). Analysis revealed that in most cases, the effectiveguide sequences in the chimeric crRNA context were substantially free ofsecondary structure motifs, whereas the ineffective guide sequences weremore likely to form internal secondary structures that could preventbase pairing with the target protospacer DNA. It is thus possible thatvariability in the spacer secondary structure might impact theefficiency of CRISPR-mediated interference when using a chimeric crRNA.

Further vector designs for SpCas9 are shown in FIG. 22, whichillustrates single expression vectors incorporating a U6 promoter linkedto an insertion site for a guide oligo, and a Cbh promoter linked toSpCas9 coding sequence. The vector shown in FIG. 22b includes a tracrRNAcoding sequence linked to an H1 promoter.

In the bacterial assay, all spacers facilitated efficient CRISPRinterference (FIG. 3C). These results suggest that there may beadditional factors affecting the efficiency of CRISPR activity inmammalian cells.

To investigate the specificity of CRISPR-mediated cleavage, the effectof single-nucleotide mutations in the guide sequence on protospacercleavage in the mammalian genome was analyzed using a series ofEMX1-targeting chimeric crRNAs with single point mutations (FIG. 3A).FIG. 3B illustrates results of a Surveyor nuclease assay comparing thecleavage efficiency of Cas9 when paired with different mutant chimericRNAs. Single-base mismatch up to 12-bp 5′ of the PAM substantiallyabrogated genomic cleavage by SpCas9, whereas spacers with mutations atfarther upstream positions retained activity against the originalprotospacer target (FIG. 3B). In addition to the PAM, SpCas9 hassingle-base specificity within the last 12-bp of the spacer.Furthermore, CRISPR is able to mediate genomic cleavage as efficientlyas a pair of TALE nucleases (TALEN) targeting the same EMX1 protospacer.FIG. 3C provides a schematic showing the design of TALENs targetingEMX1, and FIG. 3D shows a Surveyor gel comparing the efficiency of TALENand Cas9 (n=3).

Having established a set of components for achieving CRISPR-mediatedgene editing in mammalian cells through the error-prone NHEJ mechanism,the ability of CRISPR to stimulate homologous recombination (HR), a highfidelity gene repair pathway for making precise edits in the genome, wastested. The wild type SpCas9 is able to mediate site-specific DSBs,which can be repaired through both NHEJ and HR. In addition, anaspartate-to-alanine substitution (D10A) in the RuvC I catalytic domainof SpCas9 was engineered to convert the nuclease into a nickase(SpCas9n; illustrated in FIG. 4A) (see e.g. Sapranausaks et al., 2011,Nucleic Acids Resch, 39: 9275; Gasiunas et al., 2012, Proc. Natl. Acad.Sci. USA, 109:E2579), such that nicked genomic DNA undergoes thehigh-fidelity homology-directed repair (HDR). Surveyor assay confirmedthat SpCas9n does not generate indels at the EMX1 protospacer target. Asillustrated in FIG. 4B, co-expression of EMX1 targeting chimeric crRNAwith SpCas9 produced indels in the target site, whereas co-expressionwith SpCas9n did not (n=3). Moreover, sequencing of 327 amplicons didnot detect any indels induced by SpCas9n. The same locus was selected totest CRISPR-mediated HR by co-transfecting HEK 293FT cells with thechimeric RNA targeting EMX1, hSpCas9 or hSpCas9n, as well as a HRtemplate to introduce a pair of restriction sites (HindIII and NheI)near the protospacer. FIG. 4C provides a schematic illustration of theHR strategy, with relative locations of recombination points and primerannealing sequences (arrows). SpCas9 and SpCas9n indeed catalyzedintegration of the HR template into the EMX1 locus. PCR amplification ofthe target region followed by restriction digest with HindIII revealedcleavage products corresponding to expected fragment sizes (arrows inrestriction fragment length polymorphism gel analysis shown in FIG. 4D),with SpCas9 and SpCas9n mediating similar levels of HR efficiencies.Applicants further verified HR using Sanger sequencing of genomicamplicons (FIG. 4E). These results demonstrate the utility of CRISPR forfacilitating targeted gene insertion in the mammalian genome. Given the14-bp (12-bp from the spacer and 2-bp from the PAM) target specificityof the wild type SpCas9, the availability of a nickase can significantlyreduce the likelihood of off-target modifications, since single strandbreaks are not substrates for the error-prone NHEJ pathway.

Expression constructs mimicking the natural architecture of CRISPR lociwith arrayed spacers (FIG. 2A) were constructed to test the possibilityof multiplexed sequence targeting. Using a single CRISPR array encodinga pair of EMX1-and PVALB-targeting spacers, efficient cleavage at bothloci was detected (FIG. 4F, showing both a schematic design of the crRNAarray and a Surveyor blot showing efficient mediation of cleavage).Targeted deletion of larger genomic regions through concurrent DSBsusing spacers against two targets within EMX1 spaced by 119 bp was alsotested, and a 1.6% deletion efficacy (3 out of 182 amplicons; FIG. 4G)was detected. This demonstrates that the CRISPR system can mediatemultiplexed editing within a single genome.

Example 2: CRISPR System Modifications and Alternatives

The ability to use RNA to program sequence-specific DNA cleavage definesa new class of genome engineering tools for a variety of research andindustrial applications. Several aspects of the CRISPR system can befurther improved to increase the efficiency and versatility of CRISPRtargeting. Optimal Cas9 activity may depend on the availability of freeMg²⁺ at levels higher than that present in the mammalian nucleus (seee.g. Jinek et al., 2012, Science, 337:816), and the preference for anNGG motif immediately downstream of the protospacer restricts theability to target on average every 12-bp in the human genome (FIG. 9,evaluating both plus and minus strands of human chromosomal sequences).Some of these constraints can be overcome by exploring the diversity ofCRISPR loci across the microbial metagenome (see e.g. Makarova et al.,2011, Nat Rev Microbiol, 9:467). Other CRISPR loci may be transplantedinto the mammalian cellular milieu by a process similar to thatdescribed in Example 1. For example, FIG. 10 illustrates adaptation ofthe Type II CRISPR system from CRISPR 1 of Streptococcus thermophilusLMD-9 for heterologous expression in mammalian cells to achieveCRISPR-mediated genome editing. FIG. 10A provides a Schematicillustration of CRISPR 1 from S. thermophilus LMD-9. FIG. 10Billustrates the design of an expression system for the S. thermophilusCRISPR system. Human codon-optimized hStCas9 is expressed using aconstitutive EF1α promoter. Mature versions of tracrRNA and crRNA areexpressed using the U6 promoter to promote precise transcriptioninitiation. Sequences from the mature crRNA and tracrRNA areillustrated. A single base indicated by the lower case “a” in the crRNAsequence is used to remove the polyU sequence, which serves as a RNApolIII transcriptional terminator. FIG. 10C provides a schematic showingguide sequences targeting the human EMX1 locus. FIG. 10D shows theresults of hStCas9-mediated cleavage in the target locus using theSurveyor assay. RNA guide spacers 1 and 2 induced 14% and 6.4%,respectively. Statistical analysis of cleavage activity acrossbiological replica at these two protospacer sites is also provided inFIG. 5. FIG. 14 provides a schematic of additional protospacer andcorresponding PAM sequence targets of the S. thermophilus CRISPR systemin the human EMX1 locus. Two protospacer sequences are highlighted andtheir corresponding PAM sequences satisfying NNAGAAW motif are indicatedby underlining 3′ with respect to the corresponding highlightedsequence. Both protospacers target the anti-sense strand.

Example 3: Sample Target Sequence Selection Algorithm

A software program is designed to identify candidate CRISPR targetsequences on both strands of an input DNA sequence based on desiredguide sequence length and a CRISPR motif sequence (PAM) for a specifiedCRISPR enzyme. For example, target sites for Cas9 from S. pyogenes, withPAM sequences NGG, may be identified by searching for 5′-N_(x)NGG-3′both on the input sequence and on the reverse-complement of the input.Likewise, target sites for Cas9 of S. thermophilus CRISPR1, with PAMsequence NNAGAAW, may be identified by searching for 5′-N_(x)NNAGAAW-3′(SEQ ID NO: 92) both on the input sequence and on the reverse-complementof the input. Likewise, target sites for Cas9 of S. thermophilusCRISPR3, with PAM sequence NGGNG, may be identified by searching for5′-N_(x)NGGNG-3′ both on the input sequence and on thereverse-complement of the input. The value “x” in N_(x) may be fixed bythe program or specified by the user, such as 20.

Since multiple occurrences in the genome of the DNA target site may leadto nonspecific genome editing, after identifying all potential sites,the program filters out sequences based on the number of times theyappear in the relevant reference genome. For those CRISPR enzymes forwhich sequence specificity is determined by a ‘seed’ sequence, such asthe 11-12 bp 5′ from the PAM sequence, including the PAM sequenceitself, the filtering step may be based on the seed sequence. Thus, toavoid editing at additional genomic loci, results are filtered based onthe number of occurrences of the seed:PAM sequence in the relevantgenome. The user may be allowed to choose the length of the seedsequence. The user may also be allowed to specify the number ofoccurrences of the seed:PAM sequence in a genome for purposes of passingthe filter. The default is to screen for unique sequences. Filtrationlevel is altered by changing both the length of the seed sequence andthe number of occurrences of the sequence in the genome. The program mayin addition or alternatively provide the sequence of a guide sequencecomplementary to the reported target sequence(s) by providing thereverse complement of the identified target sequence(s). An examplevisualization of some target sites in the human genome is provided inFIG. 18.

Further details of methods and algorithms to optimize sequence selectioncan be found in U.S. application Ser. No. 61/064,798Attorney docket44790.11.2002; Broad Reference BI-2012/084); incorporated herein byreference.

Example 4: Evaluation of Multiple Chimeric crRNA-tracrRNA Hybrids

This example describes results obtained for chimeric RNAs (chiRNAs;comprising a guide sequence, a tracr mate sequence, and a tracr sequencein a single transcript) having tracr sequences that incorporatedifferent lengths of wild-type tracrRNA sequence. FIG. 16a illustrates aschematic of a bicistronic expression vector for chimeric RNA and Cas9.Cas9 is driven by the CBh promoter and the chimeric RNA is driven by aU6 promoter. The chimeric guide RNA consists of a 20 bp guide sequence(Ns) joined to the tracr sequence (running from the first “U” of thelower strand to the end of the transcript), which is truncated atvarious positions as indicated. The guide and tracr sequences areseparated by the tracr-mate sequence GUUUUAGAGCUA (SEQ ID NO: 63)followed by the loop sequence GAAA. Results of SURVEYOR assays forCas9-mediated indels at the human EMX1 and PVALB loci are illustrated inFIGS. 16b and 16c , respectively. Arrows indicate the expected SURVEYORfragments. ChiRNAs are indicated by their “+n” designation, and crRNArefers to a hybrid RNA where guide and tracr sequences are expressed asseparate transcripts. Quantification of these results, performed intriplicate, are illustrated by histogram in FIGS. 17a and 17b ,corresponding to FIGS. 16b and 16c , respectively (“N.D.” indicates noindels detected). Protospacer IDs and their corresponding genomictarget, protospacer sequence, PAM sequence, and strand location areprovided in Table D. Guide sequences were designed to be complementaryto the entire protospacer sequence in the case of separate transcriptsin the hybrid system, or only to the underlined portion in the case ofchimeric RNAs.

TABLE D protospacer genomic ID target protospacer sequence (5′ to 3′)PAM strand 1 EMX1 GGACATCGATGTCACCTCCAATGACTAGGG TGG + 2 EMX1CATTGGAGGTGACATCGATGTCCTCCCCAT TGG − 3 EMX1GGAAGGGCCTGAGTCCGAGCAGAAGAAGAA GGG + 4 PVALBGGTGGCGAGAGGGGCCGAGATTGGGTGTTC AGG + 5 PVALBATGCAGGAGGGTGGCGAGAGGGGCCGAGAT TGG +These are SEQ ID NOS: 93 to 97, respectively.

Further details to optimize guide sequences can be found in U.S.application Ser. No. 61/836,127 (Attorney docket 44790.08.2002; BroadReference BI-2013/004G); incorporated herein by reference.

Initially, three sites within the EMX1 locus in human HEK 293FT cellswere targeted. Genome modification efficiency of each chiRNA wasassessed using the SURVEYOR nuclease assay, which detects mutationsresulting from DNA double-strand breaks (DSBs) and their subsequentrepair by the non-homologous end joining (NHEJ) DNA damage repairpathway. Constructs designated chiRNA(+n) indicate that up to the +nnucleotide of wild-type tracrRNA is included in the chimeric RNAconstruct, with values of 48, 54, 67, and 85 used for n. Chimeric RNAscontaining longer fragments of wild-type tracrRNA (chiRNA(+67) andchiRNA(+85)) mediated DNA cleavage at all three EMX1 target sites, withchiRNA(+85) in particular demonstrating significantly higher levels ofDNA cleavage than the corresponding crRNA/tracrRNA hybrids thatexpressed guide and tracr sequences in separate transcripts (FIGS. 16band 17a ). Two sites in the PVALB locus that yielded no detectablecleavage using the hybrid system (guide sequence and tracr sequenceexpressed as separate transcripts) were also targeted using chiRNAs.chiRNA(+67) and chiRNA(+85) were able to mediate significant cleavage atthe two PVALB protospacers (FIGS. 16c and 17b ).

For all five targets in the EMX1 and PVALB loci, a consistent increasein genome modification efficiency with increasing tracr sequence lengthwas observed. Without wishing to be bound by any theory, the secondarystructure formed by the 3′ end of the tracrRNA may play a role inenhancing the rate of CRISPR complex formation.

Example 5: Cas9 Diversity

The CRISPR-Cas system is an adaptive immune mechanism against invadingexogenous DNA employed by diverse species across bacteria and archaea.The type II CRISPR-Cas9 system consists of a set of genes encodingproteins responsible for the “acquisition” of foreign DNA into theCRISPR locus, as well as a set of genes encoding the “execution” of theDNA cleavage mechanism; these include the DNA nuclease (Cas9), anon-coding transactivating cr-RNA (tracrRNA), and an array of foreignDNA-derived spacers flanked by direct repeats (crRNAs). Upon maturationby Cas9, the tracRNA and crRNA duplex guide the Cas9 nuclease to atarget DNA sequence specified by the spacer guide sequences, andmediates double-stranded breaks in the DNA near a short sequence motifin the target DNA that is required for cleavage and specific to eachCRISPR-Cas system. The type II CRISPR-Cas systems are found throughoutthe bacterial kingdom and highly diverse in in Cas9 protein sequence andsize, tracrRNA and crRNA direct repeat sequence, genome organization ofthese elements, and the motif requirement for target cleavage. Onespecies may have multiple distinct CRISPR-Cas systems.

Applicants evaluated 207 putative Cas9s from bacterial speciesidentified based on sequence homology to known Cas9s and structuresorthologous to known subdomains, including the HNH endonuclease domainand the RuvC endonuclease domains [information from the Eugene Kooninand Kira Makarova]. Phylogenetic analysis based on the protein sequenceconservation of this set revealed five families of Cas9s, includingthree groups of large Cas9s (˜1400 amino acids) and two of small Cas9s(˜1100 amino acids) (see FIGS. 19 and 20A-F).

Further details of Cas9s and mutations of the Cas9 enzyme to convertinto a nickase or DNA binding protein and use of same with alteredfunctionality can be found in U.S. application Ser. Nos. 61/836,101 and61/835,936 (Broad Reference BI-2013/004E and BI-2013/004F respectively)incorporated herein by reference.

Example 6: Cas9 Orthologs

Applicants analyzed Cas9 orthologs to identify the relevant PAMsequences and the corresponding chimeric guide RNA. Having an expandedset of PAMs provides broader targeting across the genome and alsosignificantly increases the number of unique target sites and providespotential for identifying novel Cas9s with increased levels ofspecificity in the genome.

The specificity of Cas9 orthologs can be evaluated by testing theability of each Cas9 to tolerate mismatches between the guide RNA andits DNA target. For example, the specificity of SpCas9 has beencharacterized by testing the effect of mutations in the guide RNA oncleavage efficiency. Libraries of guide RNAs were made with single ormultiple mismatches between the guide sequence and the target DNA. Basedon these findings, target sites for SpCas9 can be selected based on thefollowing guidelines:

To maximize SpCas9 specificity for editing a particular gene, one shouldchoose a target site within the locus of interest such that potential‘off-target’ genomic sequences abide by the following four constraints:First and foremost, they should not be followed by a PAM with either5′-NGG or NAG sequences. Second, their global sequence similarity to thetarget sequence should be minimized. Third, a maximal number ofmismatches should lie within the PAM-proximal region of the off-targetsite. Finally, a maximal number of mismatches should be consecutive orspaced less than four bases apart.

Similar methods can be used to evaluate the specificity of other Cas9orthologs and to establish criteria for the selection of specific targetsites within the genomes of target species. As mentioned previouslyphylogenetic analysis based on the protein sequence conservation of thisset revealed five families of Cas9s, including three groups of largeCas9s (˜1400 amino acids) and two of small Cas9s (˜1100 amino acids)(see FIGS. 19 and 20A-F). Further details on Cas orthologs can be foundin U.S. application Ser. Nos. 61/836,101 and 61/835,936 (Attorney docket44790.09.2022 and 4790.07.2022 and Broad Reference BI-2013/004E andBI-2013/004F respectively) incorporated herein by reference.

Example 7: Methodological Improvement to Simplify Cloning and Delivery

Rather than encoding the U6-promoter and guide RNA on a plasmid,Applicants amplified the U6 promoter with a DNA oligo to add on theguide RNA. The resulting PCR product may be transfected into cells todrive expression of the guide RNA.

Example primer pair that allows the generation a PCR product consistingof U6-promoter::guideRNA targeting human Emx1 locus:

Forward Primer: (SEQ ID NO: 98) AAACTCTAGAgagggcctatttcccatgattcReverse Primer (carrying the guide RNA, which is underlined):(SEQ ID NO: 99) acctctagAAAAAAAGCACCGACTCGGTGCCACTTTTTCAAGTTGATAACGGACTAGCCTTATTTTAACTTGCTATGCTGTTTTGTTTCCAAAACAGCATAGCTCTAAAACCCCTAGTCATTGGAGGTGACGGTGTTTCGTCCTTTCC ACaag

Example 8: Methodological Improvement to Improve Activity

Rather than use pol3 promoters, in particular RNA polymerase III (e.g.U6 or H1 promoters), to express guide RNAs in eukaryotic cells,Applicants express the T7 polymerase in eukaryotic cells to driveexpression of guide RNAs using the T7 promoter.

One example of this system may involve introduction of three pieces ofDNA:

1. expression vector for Cas9

2. expression vector for T7 polymerase

3. expression vector containing guideRNA fused to the T7 promoter

Example 9: Methodological Improvement to Reduce Toxicity of Cas9:Delivery of Cas9 in the Form of mRNA

Delivery of Cas9 in the form of mRNA enables transient expression ofCas9 in cells, to reduce toxicity. For example, humanized SpCas9 may beamplified using the following primer pair:

Forward Primer (to add on T7 promoter for in vitro transcription):(SEQ ID NO: 100) TAATACGACTCACTATAGGAAGTGCGCCACCATGGCCCCAAAGAAGAAGC GGReverse Primer (to add on polyA tail): (SEQ ID NO: 101)GGTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTttcttaCTTTTTCTTTTT TGCCTGGCCG

Applicants transfect the Cas9 mRNA into cells with either guide RNA inthe form of RNA or DNA cassettes to drive guide RNA expression ineukaryotic cells.

Example 10: Methodological Improvement to Reduce Toxicity of Cas9: Useof an Inducible Promoter

Applicants transiently turn on Cas9 expression only when it is neededfor carrying out genome modification. Examples of inducible systeminclude tetracycline inducible promoters (Tet-On or Tet-Off), smallmolecule two-hybrid transcription activations systems (FKBP, ABA, etc),or light inducible systems (Phytochrome, LOV domains, or cryptochrome).

Example 11: Improvement of the Cas9 System for In Vivo Application

Applicants conducted a Metagenomic search for a Cas9 with smallmolecular weight. Most Cas9 homologs are fairly large. For example theSpCas9 is around 1368aa long, which is too large to be easily packagedinto viral vectors for delivery. A graph representing the lengthdistribution of Cas9 homologs is generated from sequences deposited inGenBank (FIG. 23). Some of the sequences may have been mis-annotated andtherefore the exact frequency for each length may not necessarily beaccurate. Nevertheless it provides a glimpse at distribution of Cas9proteins and suggest that there are shorter Cas9 homologs.

Through computational analysis, Applicants found that in the bacterialstrain Campylobacter, there are two Cas9 proteins with less than 1000amino acids. The sequence for one Cas9 from Campylobacter jejuni ispresented below. At this length, CjCas9 can be easily packaged into AAV,lentiviruses, Adenoviruses, and other viral vectors for robust deliveryinto primary cells and in vivo in animal models. In a preferredembodiment of the invention, the Cas9 protein from S. aureus is used.

>Campylobacter jejuni Cas9 (CjCas9) (SEQ ID NO: 102)MARILAFDIGISSIGWAFSENDELKDCGVRIFTKVENPKTGESLALPRRLARSARKRLARRKARLNHLKHLIANEFKLNYEDYQSFDESLAKAYKGSLISPYELRFRALNELLSKQDFARVILHIAKRRGYDDIKNSDDKEKGAILKAIKQNEEKLANYQSVGEYLYKEYFQKFKENSKEFTNVRNKKESYERCIAQSFLKDELKLIFKKQREFGFSFSKKFEEEVLSVAFYKRALKDFSHLVGNCSFFTDEKRAPKNSPLAFMFVALTRIINLLNNLKNTEGILYTKDDLNALLNEVLKNGTLTYKQTKKLLGLSDDYEFKGEKGTYFIEFKKYKEFIKALGEHNLSQDDLNEIAKDITLIKDEIKLKKALAKYDLNQNQIDSLSKLEFKDHLNISFKALKLVTPLMLEGKKYDEACNELNLKVAINEDKKDFLPAFNETYYKDEVTNPVVLRAIKEYRKVLNALLKKYGKVHKINIELAREVGKNHSQRAKIEKEQNENYKAKKDAELECEKLGLKINSKNILKLRLFKEQKEFCAYSGEKIKISDLQDEKMLEIDHIYPYSRSFDDSYMNKVLVFTKQNQEKLNQTPFEAFGNDSAKWQKIEVLAKNLPTKKQKRILDKNYKDKEQKNFKDRNLNDTRYIARLVLNYTKDYLDFLPLSDDENTKLNDTQKGSKVHVEAKSGMLTSALRHTWGFSAKDRNNHLHHAIDAVIIAYANNSIVKAFSDFKKEQESNSAELYAKKISELDYKNKRKFFEPFSGFRQKVLDKIDEIFVSKPERKKPSGALHEETFRKEEEFYQSYGGKEGVLKALELGKIRKVNGKIVKNGDMFRVDIFKHKKTNKFYAVPIYTMDFALKVLPNKAVARSKKGEIKDWILMDENYEFCFSLYKDSLILIQTKDMQEPEFVYYNAFTSSTVSLIVSKHDNKFETLSKNQKILFKNANEKEVIAKSIGIQNLKVFEKYIVSALGEVTKAEFRQREDFKK.

The putative tracrRNA element for this CjCas9 is:

(SEQ ID NO: 103) TATAATCTCATAAGAAATTTAAAAAGGGACTAAAATAAAGAGTTTGCGGGACTCTGCGGGGTTACAATCCCCTAAAACCGCTTTTAAAATT

The Direct Repeat sequence is:

(SEQ ID NO: 104) ATTTTACCATAAAGAAATTTAAAAAGGGACTAAAAC

An example of a chimeric guideRNA for CjCas9 is:

(SEQ ID NO: 105) NNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNGUUUUAGUCCCGAAAGGGACUAAAAUAAAGAGUUUGCGGGACUCUGCGGGGUUACAAUCCCCUAAAACCGCUUUU

Example 12: Cas9 Optimization

For enhanced function or to develop new functions, Applicants generatechimeric Cas9 proteins by combining fragments from different Cas9homologs. For example, two example chimeric Cas9 proteins:

For example, Applicants fused the N-term of St1Cas9 (fragment from thisprotein is in bold) with C-term of SpCas9 (fragment from this protein isunderlined).

>St1(N)Sp(C)Cas9 (SEQ ID NO: 106)MSDLVLGLDIGIGSVGVGILNKVTGEIIHKNSRIFPAAQAENNLVRRTNRQGRRLARRKKHRRVRLNRLFEESGLITDFTKISINLNPYQLRVKGLTDELSNEELFIALKNMVKHRGISYLDDASDDGNSSVGDYAQIVKENSKQLETKTPGQIQLERYQTYGQLRGDFTVEKDGKKHRLINVFPTSAYRSEALRILQTQQEFNPQITDEFINRYLEILTGKRKYYHGPGNEKSRTDYGRYRTSGETLDNIFGILIGKCTFYPDEFRAAKASYTAQEFNLLNDLNNLTVPTETKKLSKEQKNQIINYVKNEKAMGPAKLFKYIAKLLSCDVADIKGYRIDKSGKAEIHTFEAYRKMKTLETLDIEQMDRETLDKLAYVLTLNTEREGIQEALEHEFADGSFSQKQVDELVQFRKANSSIFGKGWHNFSVKLMMELIPELYETSEEQMTILTRLGKQKTTSSSNKTKYIDEKLLTEEIYNPVVAKSVRQAIKIVNAAIKEYGDFDNIVIEMARENQTTQKGQKNSRERMKRIEEGIKELGSQILKEHPVENTQLQNEKLYLYYLQNGRDMYVDQELDINRLSDYDVDHIVPQSFLKDDSIDNKVLTRSDKNRGKSDNVPSEEVVKKMKNYWRQLLNAKLITQRKFDNLTKAERGGLSELDKAGFIKRQLVETRQITKHVAQILDSRMNTKYDENDKLIREVKVITLKSKLVSDFRKDFQFYKVREINNYHHAHDAYLNAVVGTALIKKYPKLESEFVYGDYKVYDVRKMIAKSEQEIGKATAKYFFYSNIMNFFKTEITLANGEIRKRPLIETNGETGEIVWDKGRDFATVRKVLSMPQVNIVKKTEVQTGGFSKESILPKRNSDKLIARKKDWDPKKYGGFDSPTVAYSVLVVAKVEKGKSKKLKSVKELLGITIMERSSFEKNPIDFLEAKGYKEVKKDLIIKLPKYSLFELENGRKRMLASAGELQKGNELALPSKYVNFLYLASHYEKLKGSPEDNEQKQLFVEQHKHYLDEIIEQISEFSKRVILADANLDKVLSAYNKHRDKPIREQAENIIHLFTLTNLGAPAAFKYFDTTIDRKRYTSTKEVLDATLIHQSITGLYETRIDLSQLGGD >Sp(N)St1(C)Cas9 (SEQ ID NO: 107)MDKKYSIGLDIGTNSVGWAVITDEYKVPSKKFKVLGNTDRHSIKKNLIGALLFDSGETAEATRLKRTARRRYTRRKNRICYLQEIFSNEMAKVDDSFFHRLEESFLVEEDKKHERHPIFGNIVDEVAYHEKYPTIYHLRKKLVDSTDKADLRLIYLALAHMIKFRGHFLIEGDLNPDNSDVDKLFIQLVQTYNQLFEENPINASGVDAKAILSARLSKSRRLENLIAQLPGEKKNGLFGNLIALSLGLTPNFKSNFDLAEDAKLQLSKDTYDDDLDNLLAQIGDQYADLFLAAKNLSDAILLSDILRVNTEITKAPLSASMIKRYDEHHQDLTLLKALVRQQLPEKYKEIFFDQSKNGYAGYIDGGASQEEFYKFIKPILEKMDGTEELLVKLNREDLLRKQRTFDNGSIPHQIHLGELHAILRRQEDFYPFLKDNREKIEKILTFRIPYYVGPLARGNSRFAWMTRKSEETITPWNFEEVVDKGASAQSFIERMTNFDKNLPNEKVLPKHSLLYEYFTVYNELTKVKYVTEGMRKPAFLSGEQKKAIVDLLFKTNRKVTVKQLKEDYFKKIECFDSVEISGVEDRFNASLGTYHDLLKIIKDKDFLDNEENEDILEDIVLTLTLFEDREMIEERLKTYAHLFDDKVMKQLKRRRYTGWGRLSRKLINGIRDKQSGKTILDFLKSDGFANRNFMQLIHDDSLTFKEDIQKAQVSGQGDSLHEHIANLAGSPAIKKGILQTVKVVDELVKVMGRHKPENIVIEMARETNEDDEKKAIQKIQKANKDEKDAAMLKAANQYNGKAELPHSVFHGHKQLATKIRLWHQQGERCLYTGKTISIHDLINNSNQFEVDHILPLSITFDDSLANKVLVYATANQEKGQRTPYQALDSMDDAWSFRELKAFVRESKTLSNKKKEYLLTEEDISKFDVRKKFIERNLVDTRYASRVVLNALQEHFRAHKIDTKVSVVRGQFTSQLRRHWGIEKTRDTYHHHAVDALIIAASSQLNLWKKQKNTLVSYSEDQLLDIETGELISDDEYKESVFKAPYQHFVDTLKSKEFEDSILFSYQVDSKFNRKISDATIYATRQAKVGKDKADETYVLGKIKDIYTQDGYDAFMKIYKKDKSKFLMYRHDPQTFEKVIEPILENYPNKQINEKGKEVPCNPFLKYKEEHGYIRKYSKKGNGPEIKSLKYYDSKLGNHIDITPKDSNNKVVLQSVSPWRADVYFNKTTGKYEILGLKYADLQFEKGTGTYKISQEKYNDIKKKEGVDSDSEFKFTLYKNDLLLVKDTETKEQQLFRFLSRTMPKQKHYVELKPYDKQKFEGGEALIKVLGNVANSGQCKKGLGKSNISIYKVRTDVLGNQHIIKNEGDKPKLDF

The benefit of making chimeric Cas9 include:

reduce toxicity,

improve expression in eukaryotic cells,

enhance specificity,

reduce molecular weight of protein, make protein smaller by combiningthe smallest domains from different Cas9 homologs; and

altering the PAM sequence requirement

Example 13: Utilization of Cas9 as a Generic DNA Binding Protein

Applicants used Cas9 as a generic DNA binding protein by mutating thetwo catalytic domains (D10 and H840) responsible for cleaving bothstrands of the DNA target. In order to upregulate gene transcription ata target locus Applicants fused the transcriptional activation domain(VP64) to Cas9. Applicants hypothesized that it would be important tosee strong nuclear localization of the Cas9-VP64 fusion protein becausetranscription factor activation strength is a function of time spent atthe target. Therefore, Applicants cloned a set of Cas9-VP64-GFPconstructs, transfected them into 293 cells and assessed theirlocalization under a fluorescent microscope 12 hours post-transfection.

The same constructs were cloned as a 2A-GFP rather than a direct fusionin order to functionally test the constructs without a bulky GFP presentto interfere. Applicants elected to target the Sox2 locus with the Cas9transactivator because it could be useful for cellular reprogram and thelocus has already been validated as a target for TALE-TF mediatedtranscriptional activation. For the Sox2 locus Applicants chose eighttargets near the transcriptional start site (TSS). Each target was 20 bplong with a neighboring NGG protospacer adjacent motif (PAM). EachCas9-VP64 construct was co-transfected with each PCR generated chimericcrispr RNA (chiRNA) in 293 cells. 72 hours post transfection thetranscriptional activation was assessed using RT-qPCR.

To further optimize the transcriptional activator, Applicants titratedthe ratio of chiRNA (Sox2.1 and Sox2.5) to Cas9(NLS-VP64-NLS-hSpCas9-NLS-VP64-NLS), transfected into 293 cells, andquantified using RT-qPCR. These results indicate that Cas9 can be usedas a generic DNA binding domain to upregulate gene transcription at atarget locus.

Applicants designed a second generation of constructs. (Table below)(“6×His” disclosed as SEQ ID NO: 925).

pLenti-EF1a-GFP-2A-6xHis-NLS-VP64-NLS-hSpCsn1(D10A, H840A)-NLSpLenti-EF1a-GFP-2A-6xHis-NLS-VP64-NLS-hSpCsn1(D10A, H840A)pLenti-EF1a-GFP-2A-6xHis-NLS-VP64-NLS-NLS-hSpCsn1(D10A, H840A)pLenti-EF1a-GFP-2A-6xHis-NLS-hSpCsn1(D10A, H840A)-NLSpLenti-EF1a-GFP-2A-6xHis-NLS-hSpCsn1(D10A, H840A)pLenti-EF1a-GFP-2A-6xHis-NLS-NLS-hSpCsn1(D10A, H840A)

Applicants use these constructs to assess transcriptional activation(VP64 fused constructs) and repression (Cas9 only) by RT-qPCR.Applicants assess the cellular localization of each construct usinganti-His antibody, nuclease activity using a Surveyor nuclease assay,and DNA binding affinity using a gel shift assay. In a preferredembodiment of the invention, the gel shift assay is an EMSA gel shiftassay.

Example 14: Cas9 Transgenic and Knock in Mice

To generate a mouse that expresses the Cas9 nuclease Applicants submittwo general strategies, transgenic and knock in. These strategies may beapplied to generate any other model organism of interest, for e.g. Rat.For each of the general strategies Applicants made a constitutivelyactive Cas9 and a Cas9 that is conditionally expressed (Cre recombinasedependent). The constitutively active Cas9 nuclease is expressed in thefollowing context: pCAG-NLS-Cas9-NLS-P2A-EGFP-WPRE-bGHpolyA. pCAG is thepromoter, NLS is a nuclear localization signal, P2A is the peptidecleavage sequence, EGFP is enhanced green fluorescent protein, WPRE isthe woodchuck hepatitis virus posttranscriptional regulatory element,and bGHpolyA is the bovine growth hormone poly-A signal sequence (FIGS.25A-B). The conditional version has one additional stop cassetteelement, loxP-SV40 polyA ×3-loxP, after the promoter and beforeNLS-Cas9-NLS (i.e.pCAG-loxP-SV40polyAx3-loxP-NLS-Cas9-NLS-P2A-EGFP-WPRE-bGHpolyA). Theimportant expression elements can be visualized as in FIG. 26. Theconstitutive construct should be expressed in all cell types throughoutdevelopment, whereas, the conditional construct will only allow Cas9expression when the same cell is expressing the Cre recombinase. Thislatter version will allow for tissue specific expression of Cas9 whenCre is under the expression of a tissue specific promoter. Moreover,Cas9 expression could be induced in adult mice by putting Cre under theexpression of an inducible promoter such as the TET on or off system.

Validation of Cas9 constructs: Each plasmid was functionally validatedin three ways: 1) transient transfection in 293 cells followed byconfirmation of GFP expression; 2) transient transfection in 293 cellsfollowed by immunofluorescence using an antibody recognizing the P2Asequence; and 3) transient transfection followed by Surveyor nucleaseassay. The 293 cells may be 293FT or 293 T cells depending on the cellsthat are of interest. In a preferred embodiment the cells are 293FTcells. The results of the Surveyor were run out on the top and bottomrow of the gel for the conditional and constitutive constructs,respectively. Each was tested in the presence and absence of chimericRNA targeted to the hEMX1 locus (chimeric RNA hEMX1.1). The resultsindicate that the construct can successfully target the hEMX1 locus onlyin the presence of chimeric RNA (and Cre in the conditional case). Thegel was quantified and the results are presented as average cuttingefficiency and standard deviation for three samples.

Transgenic Cas9 mouse: To generate transgenic mice with constructs,Applicants inject pure, linear DNA into the pronucleus of a zygote froma pseudo pregnant CB56 female. Founders are identified, genotyped, andbackcrossed to CB57 mice. The constructs were successfully cloned andverified by Sanger sequencing.

Knock in Cas9 mouse: To generate Cas9 knock in mice Applicants targetthe same constitutive and conditional constructs to the Rosa26 locus.Applicants did this by cloning each into a Rosa26 targeting vector withthe following elements: Rosa26 short homologyarm—constitutive/conditional Cas9 expression cassette—pPGK-Neo-Rosa26long homology arm—pPGK-DTA. pPGK is the promoter for the positiveselection marker Neo, which confers resistance to neomycin, a 1 kb shortarm, a 4.3 kb long arm, and a negative selection diphtheria toxin (DTA)driven by PGK.

The two constructs were electroporated into R1 mESCs and allowed to growfor 2 days before neomycin selection was applied. Individual coloniesthat had survived by days 5-7 were picked and grown in individual wells.5-7 days later the colonies were harvested, half were frozen and theother half were used for genotyping. Genotyping was done by genomic PCR,where one primer annealed within the donor plasmid (AttpF) and the otheroutside of the short homology arm (Rosa26-R) Of the 22 coloniesharvested for the conditional case, 7 were positive (Left). Of the 27colonies harvested for the constitutive case, zero were positive(Right). It is likely that Cas9 causes some level of toxicity in themESC and for this reason there were no positive clones. To test thisApplicants introduced a Cre expression plasmid into correctly targetedconditional Cas9 cells and found very low toxicity after many days inculture. The reduced copy number of Cas9 in correctly targetedconditional Cas9 cells (1-2 copies per cell) is enough to allow stableexpression and relatively no cytotoxicity. Moreover, this data indicatesthat the Cas9 copy number determines toxicity. After electroporationeach cell should get several copies of Cas9 and this is likely why nopositive colonies were found in the case of the constitutive Cas9construct. This provides strong evidence that utilizing a conditional,Cre-dependent strategy should show reduced toxicity. Applicants injectcorrectly targeted cells into a blastocyst and implant into a femalemouse. Chimerics are identified and backcrossed. Founders are identifiedand genotyped.

Utility of the conditional Cas9 mouse: Applicants have shown in 293cells that the Cas9 conditional expression construct can be activated byco-expression with Cre. Applicants also show that the correctly targetedR1 mESCs can have active Cas9 when Cre is expressed. Because Cas9 isfollowed by the P2A peptide cleavage sequence and then EGFP Applicantsidentify successful expression by observing EGFP. This same concept iswhat makes the conditional Cas9 mouse so useful. Applicants may crosstheir conditional Cas9 mouse with a mouse that ubiquitously expressesCre (ACTB-Cre line) and may arrive at a mouse that expresses Cas9 inevery cell. It should only take the delivery of chimeric RNA to inducegenome editing in embryonic or adult mice. Interestingly, if theconditional Cas9 mouse is crossed with a mouse expressing Cre under atissue specific promoter, there should only be Cas9 in the tissues thatalso express Cre. This approach may be used to edit the genome in onlyprecise tissues by delivering chimeric RNA to the same tissue.

Example 15: Cas9 Diversity and Chimeric RNAs

The CRISPR-Cas system is an adaptive immune mechanism against invadingexogenous DNA employed by diverse species across bacteria and archaea.The type II CRISPR-Cas system consists of a set of genes encodingproteins responsible for the “acquisition” of foreign DNA into theCRISPR locus, as well as a set of genes encoding the “execution” of theDNA cleavage mechanism; these include the DNA nuclease (Cas9), anon-coding transactivating cr-RNA (tracrRNA), and an array of foreignDNA-derived spacers flanked by direct repeats (crRNAs). Upon maturationby Cas9, the tracrRNA and crRNA duplex guide the Cas9 nuclease to atarget DNA sequence specified by the spacer guide sequences, andmediates double-stranded breaks in the DNA near a short sequence motifin the target DNA that is required for cleavage and specific to eachCRISPR-Cas system. The type II CRISPR-Cas systems are found throughoutthe bacterial kingdom and highly diverse in in Cas9 protein sequence andsize, tracrRNA and crRNA direct repeat sequence, genome organization ofthese elements, and the motif requirement for target cleavage. Onespecies may have multiple distinct CRISPR-Cas systems.

Applicants evaluated 207 putative Cas9s from bacterial speciesidentified based on sequence homology to known Cas9s and structuresorthologous to known subdomains, including the HNH endonuclease domainand the RuvC endonuclease domains [information from the Eugene Kooninand Kira Makarova]. Phylogenetic analysis based on the protein sequenceconservation of this set revealed five families of Cas9s, includingthree groups of large Cas9s (˜1400 amino acids) and two of small Cas9s(˜1100 amino acids) (FIGS. 19A-D and 20A-F).

Applicants have also optimized Cas9 guide RNA using in vitro methods.

Example 16: Cas9 Mutations

In this example, Applicants show that the following mutations canconvert SpCas9 into a nicking enzyme: D10A, E762A, H840A, N854A, N863A,D986A.

Applicants provide sequences showing where the mutation points arelocated within the SpCas9 gene (FIG. 24A-M). Applicants also show thatthe nickases are still able to mediate homologous recombination.Furthermore, Applicants show that SpCas9 with these mutations(individually) do not induce double strand break.

Cas9 orthologs all share the general organization of 3-4 RuvC domainsand a HNH domain. The 5′ most RuvC domain cleaves the non-complementarystrand, and the HNH domain cleaves the complementary strand. Allnotations are in reference to the guide sequence.

The catalytic residue in the 5′ RuvC domain is identified throughhomology comparison of the Cas9 of interest with other Cas9 orthologs(from S. pyogenes type II CRISPR locus, S. thermophilus CRISPR locus 1,S. thermophilus CRISPR locus 3, and Franciscilla novicida type II CRISPRlocus), and the conserved Asp residue is mutated to alanine to convertCas9 into a complementary-strand nicking enzyme. Similarly, theconserved His and Asn residues in the HNH domains are mutated to Alanineto convert Cas9 into a non-complementary-strand nicking enzyme.

Example 17: Cas9 Transcriptional Activation and Cas9 Repressor

Cas9 Transcriptional Activation

A second generation of constructs were designed and tested (Table 1).These constructs are used to assess transcriptional activation (VP64fused constructs) and repression (Cas9 only) by RT-qPCR. Applicantsassess the cellular localization of each construct using anti-Hisantibody, nuclease activity using a Surveyor nuclease assay, and DNAbinding affinity using a gel shift assay.

Cas Repressor

It has been shown previously that dCas9 can be used as a generic DNAbinding domain to repress gene expression. Applicants report an improveddCas9 design as well as dCas9 fusions to the repressor domains KRAB andSID4×. From the plasmid library created for modulating transcriptionusing Cas9 in Table 1, the following repressor plasmids werefunctionally characterized by qPCR: pXRP27, pXRP28, pXRP29, pXRP48,pXRP49, pXRP50, pXRP51, pXRP52, pXRP53, pXRP56, pXRP58, pXRP59, pXRP61,and pXRP62.

Each dCas9 repressor plasmid was co-transfected with two guide RNAstargeted to the coding strand of the beta-catenin gene. RNA was isolated72 hours after transfection and gene expression was quantified byRT-qPCR. The endogenous control gene was GAPDH. Two validated shRNAswere used as positive controls. Negative controls were certain plasmidstransfected without gRNA, these are denoted as “pXRP ## control”. Theplasmids pXRP28, pXRP29, pXRP48, and pXRP49 could repress thebeta-catenin gene when using the specified targeting strategy. Theseplasmids correspond to dCas9 without a functional domain (pXRP28 andpXRP28) and dCas9 fused to SID4× (pXRP48 and pXRP49).

Further work investigates: repeating the above experiment, targetingdifferent genes, utilizing other gRNAs to determine the optimaltargeting position, and multiplexed repression.

TABLE 1 (Table 1 discloses “GGGGS₃” as SEQ ID NO: 108, “EAAAK₃” as SEQID NO: 109 and “GGGGGS₃” as SEQ ID NO: 110)pXRP024-pLenti2-EF1a-VP64-NLS-FLAG-Linker-dCas9-NLS-gLuc-2A-GFP-WPREpXRP025-pLenti2-EF1a-VP64-NLS-GGGGS₃Linker-dCas9-NLS-gLuc-2A-GFP-WPREpXRP026-pLenti2-EF1a-VP64-NLS-EAAAK₃Linker-dCas9-NLS-gLuc-2A-GFP-WPREpXRP027-pLenti2-EF1a-NLS-FLAG-Linker-dCas9-NLS-gLuc-2A-GFP-WPREpXRP028-pLenti2-EF1a-NLS-GGGGS₃Linker-dCas9-NLS-gLuc-2A-GFP-WPREpXRP029-pLenti2-EF1a-NLS-EAAAK₃Linker-dCas9-NLS-gLuc-2A-GFP-WPREpXRP030-pLenti2-pSV40-VP64-NLS-FLAG-Linker-dCas9-NLS-gLuc-2A-GFP-WPREpXRP031-pLenti2-pPGK-VP64-NLS-FLAG-Linker-dCas9-NLS-gLuc-2A-GFP-WPREpXRP032-pLenti2-LTR-VP64-NLS-FLAG-Linker-dCas9-NLS-gLuc-2A-GFP-WPREpXRP033-pLenti2-pSV40-VP64-NLS-GGGGS₃Linker-dCas9-NLS-gLuc-2A-GFP-WPREpXRP034-pLenti2-pPGK-VP64-NLS-GGGGS₃Linker-dCas9-NLS-gLuc-2A-GFP-WPREpXRP035-pLenti2-LTR-VP64-NLS-GGGGS₃Linker-dCas9-NLS-gLuc-2A-GFP-WPREpXRP036-pLenti2-pSV40-VP64-NLS-EAAAK₃Linker-dCas9-NLS-gLuc-2A-GFP-WPREpXRP037-pLenti2-pPGK-VP64-NLS-EAAAK₃Linker-dCas9-NLS-gLuc-2A-GFP-WPREpXRP038-pLenti2-LTR-VP64-NLS-EAAAK₃Linker-dCas9-NLS-gLuc-2A-GFP-WPREpXRP048-pLenti2-EF1a-SID4x-NLS-FLAG-Linker-dCas9-NLS-gLuc-2A-GFP-WPREpXRP049-pLenti2-EF1a-SID4X-NLS-GGGGS₃Linker-dCas9-NLS-gLuc-2A-GFP-WPREpXRP050-pLenti2-EF1a-SID4X-NLS-EAAAK₃Linker-dCas9-NLS-gLuc-2A-GFP-WPREpXRP051-pLenti2-EF1a-KRAB-NLS-FLAG-Linker-dCas9-NLS-gLuc-2A-GFP-WPREpXRP052-pLenti2-EF1a-KRAB-NLS-GGGGS₃Linker-dCas9-NLS-gLuc-2A-GFP-WPREpXRP053-pLenti2-EF1a-KRAB-NLS-EAAAK₃Linker-dCas9-NLS-gLuc-2A-GFP-WPREpXRP054-pLenti2-EF1a-dCas9-Linker-FLAG-NLS-VP64-gLuc-2A-GFP-WPREpXRP055-pLenti2-EF1a-dCas9-Linker-FLAG-NLS-SID4X-gLuc-2A-GFP-WPREpXRP056-pLenti2-EF1a-dCas9-Linker-FLAG-NLS-KRAB-gLuc-2A-GFP-WPREpXRP057-pLenti2-EF1a-dCas9-GGGGGS₃-NLS-VP64-gLuc-2A-GFP-WPREpXRP058-pLenti2-EF1a-dCas9-GGGGGS₃-NLS-SID4X-gLuc-2A-GFP-WPREpXRP059-pLenti2-EF1a-dCas9-GGGGGS₃-NLS-KRAB-gLuc-2A-GFP-WPREpXRP060-pLenti2-EF1a-dCas9-EAAAK₃-NLS-VP64-gLuc-2A-GFP-WPREpXRP061-pLenti2-EF1a-dCas9-EAAAK₃-NLS-SID4X-gLuc-2A-GFP-WPREpXRP062-pLenti2-EF1a-dCas9-EAAAK₃-NLS-KRAB-gLuc-2A-GFP-WPREpXRP024-pLenti2-EF1a-VP64-NLS-FLAG-Linker-Cas9-NLS-gLuc-2A-GFP-WPREpXRP025-pLenti2-EF1a-VP64-NLS-GGGGS₃Linker-Cas9-NLS-gLuc-2A-GFP-WPREpXRP026-pLenti2-EF1a-VP64-NLS-EAAAK₃Linker-Cas9-NLS-gLuc-2A-GFP-WPREpXRP027-pLenti2-EF1a-NLS-FLAG-Linker-Cas9-NLS-gLuc-2A-GFP-WPREpXRP028-pLenti2-EF1a-NLS-GGGGS₃Linker-Cas9-NLS-gLuc-2A-GFP-WPREpXRP029-pLenti2-EF1a-NLS-EAAAK₃Linker-Cas9-NLS-gLuc-2A-GFP-WPREpXRP030-pLenti2-pSV40-VP64-NLS-FLAG-Linker-Cas9-NLS-gLuc-2A-GFP-WPREpXRP031-pLenti2-pPGK-VP64-NLS-FLAG-Linker-Cas9-NLS-gLuc-2A-GFP-WPREpXRP032-pLenti2-LTR-VP64-NLS-FLAG-Linker-Cas9-NLS-gLuc-2A-GFP-WPREpXRP033-pLenti2-pSV40-VP64-NLS-GGGGS₃Linker-Cas9-NLS-gLuc-2A-GFP-WPREpXRP034-pLenti2-pPGK-VP64-NLS-GGGGS₃Linker-Cas9-NLS-gLuc-2A-GFP-WPREpXRP035-pLenti2-LTR-VP64-NLS-GGGGS₃Linker-Cas9-NLS-gLuc-2A-GFP-WPREpXRP036-pLenti2-pSV40-VP64-NLS-EAAAK₃Linker-Cas9-NLS-gLuc-2A-GFP-WPREpXRP037-pLenti2-pPGK-VP64-NLS-EAAAK₃Linker-Cas9-NLS-gLuc-2A-GFP-WPREpXRP038-pLenti2-LTR-VP64-NLS-EAAAK₃Linker-Cas9-NLS-gLuc-2A-GFP-WPREpXRP048-pLenti2-EF1a-SID4x-NLS-FLAG-Linker-Cas9-NLS-gLuc-2A-GFP-WPREpXRP049-pLenti2-EF1a-SID4X-NLS-GGGGS₃Linker-Cas9-NLS-gLuc-2A-GFP-WPREpXRP050-pLenti2-EF1a-SID4X-NLS-EAAAK₃Linker-Cas9-NLS-gLuc-2A-GFP-WPREpXRP051-pLenti2-EF1a-KRAB-NLS-FLAG-Linker-Cas9-NLS-gLuc-2A-GFP-WPREpXRP052-pLenti2-EF1a-KRAB-NLS-GGGGS₃Linker-Cas9-NLS-gLuc-2A-GFP-WPREpXRP053-pLenti2-EF1a-KRAB-NLS-EAAAK₃Linker-Cas9-NLS-gLuc-2A-GFP-WPREpXRP054-pLenti2-EF1a-Cas9-Linker-FLAG-NLS-VP64-gLuc-2A-GFP-WPREpXRP055-pLenti2-EF1a-Cas9-Linker-FLAG-NLS-SID4X-gLuc-2A-GFP-WPREpXRP056-pLenti2-EF1a-Cas9-Linker-FLAG-NLS-KRAB-gLuc-2A-GFP-WPREpXRP057-pLenti2-EF1a-Cas9-GGGGGS₃-NLS-VP64-gLuc-2A-GFP-WPREpXRP058-pLenti2-EF1a-Cas9-GGGGGS₃-NLS-SID4X-gLuc-2A-GFP-WPREpXRP059-pLenti2-EF1a-Cas9-GGGGGS₃-NLS-KRAB-gLuc-2A-GFP-WPREpXRP060-pLenti2-EF1a-Cas9-EAAAK₃-NLS-VP64-gLuc-2A-GFP-WPREpXRP061-pLenti2-EF1a-Cas9-EAAAK₃-NLS-SID4X-gLuc-2A-GFP-WPREpXRP062-pLenti2-EF1a-Cas9-EAAAK₃-NLS-KRAB-gLuc-2A-GFP-WPRE

Example 18: Targeted Deletion of Genes Involved in CholesterolBiosynthesis, Fatty Acid Biosynthesis, and Other Metabolic Disorders,Genes Encoding Mis-Folded Proteins Involved in Amyloid and OtherDiseases, Oncogenes Leading to Cellular Transformation, Latent ViralGenes, and Genes Leading to Dominant-Negative Disorders, Amongst OtherDisorders

Applicants demonstrate gene delivery of a CRISPR-Cas system in theliver, brain, ocular, epithelial, hematopoetic, or another tissue of asubject or a patient in need thereof, suffering from metabolicdisorders, amyloidosis and protein-aggregation related diseases,cellular transformation arising from genetic mutations andtranslocations, dominant negative effects of gene mutations, latentviral infections, and other related symptoms, using either viral ornanoparticle delivery system.

Study Design:

Subjects or patients in need thereof suffering from metabolic disorders,amyloidosis and protein aggregation related disease which include butare not limited to human, non-primate human, canine, feline, bovine,equine, other domestic animals and related mammals. The CRISPR-Cassystem is guided by a chimeric guide RNA and targets a specific site ofthe human genomic loci to be cleaved. After cleavage and non-homologousend-joining mediated repair, frame-shift mutation results in knock outof genes.

Applicants select guide-RNAs targeting genes involved in above-mentioneddisorders to be specific to endogenous loci with minimal off-targetactivity. Two or more guide RNAs may be encoded into a single CRISPRarray to induce simultaneous double-stranded breaks in DNA leading tomicro-deletions of affected genes or chromosomal regions.

Identification and Design of Gene Targets

For each candidate disease gene, Applicants select DNA sequences ofinterest include protein-coding exons, sequences including and flankingknown dominant negative mutation sites, sequences including and flankingpathological repetitive sequences. For gene-knockout approaches, earlycoding exons closest to the start codon offer best options for achievingcomplete knockout and minimize possibility of truncated protein productsretaining partial function.

Applicants analyze sequences of interest for all possible targetable20-bp sequences immediately 5′ to a NGG motif (for SpCas9 system) or aNNAGAAW (for St1Cas9 system). Applicants choose sequences for unique,single RNA-guided Cas9 recognition in the genome to minimize off-targeteffects based on computational algorithm to determine specificity.

Cloning of guide sequences into a delivery system

Guide sequences are synthesized as double-stranded 20-24 bpoligonucleotides. After 5′-phosphorylation treatment of oligos andannealing to form duplexes, oligos are ligated into suitable vectordepending on the delivery method:

Virus-Based Delivery Methods

AAV-based vectors (PX260, 330, 334, 335) have been described elsewhere

Lentiviral-based vectors use a similar cloning strategy of directlyligating guide sequences into a single vector carrying a U6promoter-driven chimeric RNA scaffold and a EF1a promoter-driven Cas9 orCas9 nickase.

Virus production is described elsewhere.

Nanoparticle-Based RNA Delivery Methods

1. Guide sequences are synthesized as an oligonucleotide duplex encodingT7 promoter-guide sequence-chimeric RNA. A T7 promoter is added 5′ ofCas9 by PCR method.

2. T7-driven Cas9 and guide-chimeric RNAs are transcribed in vitro, andCas9 mRNA is further capped and A-tailed using commercial kits. RNAproducts are purified per kit instructions.

Hydrodynamic Tail Vein Delivery Methods (for Mouse)

Guide sequences are cloned into AAV plasmids as described above andelsewhere in this application.

In Vitro Validation on Cell Lines

Transfection

1. DNA Plasmid Transfection

Plasmids carrying guide sequences are transfected into human embryonickidney (HEK293T) or human embryonic stem (hES) cells, other relevantcell types using lipid-, chemical-, or electroporation-based methods.For a 24-well transfection of HEK293T cells (˜260,000 cells), 500 ng oftotal DNA is transfected into each single well using Lipofectamine 2000.For a 12-well transfection of hES cells, 1 ug of total DNA istransfected into a single well using Fugene HD.

2. RNA Transfection

Purified RNA described above is used for transfection into HEK293Tcells. 1-2 ug of RNA may be transfected into 260,000 using Lipofectamine2000 per manufacturer's instruction. RNA delivery of Cas9 and chimericRNA is shown in FIG. 28.

Assay of Indel Formation In Vitro

Cells are harvested 72-hours post-transfection and assayed for indelformation as an indication of double-stranded breaks.

Briefly, genomic region around target sequence is PCR amplified(˜400-600 bp amplicon size) using high-fidelity polymerase. Products arepurified, normalized to equal concentration, and slowly annealed from95° C. to 4° C. to allow formation of DNA heteroduplexes. Postannealing, the Cel-I enzyme is used to cleave heteroduplexes, andresulting products are separated on a polyacrylamide gel and indelefficiency calculated.

In vivo proof of principle in animal

Delivery mechanisms

AAV or Lentivirus production is described elsewhere.

Nanoparticle formulation: RNA mixed into nanoparticle formulation

Hydrodynamic tail vein injections with DNA plasmids in mice areconducted using a commercial kit

Cas9 and guide sequences are delivered as virus, nanoparticle-coated RNAmixture, or DNA plasmids, and injected into subject animals. A parallelset of control animals is injected with sterile saline, Cas9 and GFP, orguide sequence and GFP alone.

Three weeks after injection, animals are tested for amelioration ofsymptoms and sacrificed. Relevant organ systems analyzed for indelformation. Phenotypic assays include blood levels of HDL, LDL, lipids,

Assay for Indel Formation

DNA is extracted from tissue using commercial kits; indel assay will beperformed as described for in vitro demonstration.

Therapeutic applications of the CRISPR-Cas system are amenable forachieving tissue-specific and temporally controlled targeted deletion ofcandidate disease genes. Examples include genes involved in cholesteroland fatty acid metabolism, amyloid diseases, dominant negative diseases,latent viral infections, among other disorders.

Examples of a Single Guide-RNA to Introduce Targeted Indels at a GeneLocus

SEQ ID Disease GENE SPACER PAM NO: Mechanism ReferencesHypercholesterolemia HMG- GCCAAATTG CGG 111 KnockoutFluvastatin: a review of its CR GACGACCCT pharmacology and use in the CGmanagement of hypercholesterolaemia. (Plosker GL et al. Drugs 1996,51(3): 433-459) Hypercholesterolemia SQLE CGAGGAGAC TGG 112 KnockoutPotential role of nonstatin CCCCGTTTC cholesterol lowering agents GG(Trapani et al. IUBMB Life, Volume 63, Issue 11, pages964-971, November 2011) Hyperlipidemia DGAT1 CCCGCCGCC AGG 113 KnockoutDGAT1 inhibitors as anti- GCCGTGGCT obesity and anti-diabetic agents. CG(Birch AM et al. Current Opinion in Drug Discovery &Development [2010, 13(4): 489-496) Leukemia BCR- TGAGCTCTA AGG 114Knockout Killing of leukemic cells with a ABL CGAGATCCABCR/ABL fusion gene by RNA CA interference (RNAi). (Fuchs etal. Oncogene 2002, 21(37): 5716-5724)

Examples of a Pair of Guide-RNA to Introduce Chromosomal Microdeletionat a Gene Locus

SEQ ID Disease GENE SPACER PAM NO: Mechanism References HyperlipidemiaPLIN2 CTCAAAATT TGG 115 Microdeletion Perilipin-2 Null Mice are guide1CATACCGGT Protected Against Diet-Induced TGObesity, Adipose Inflammation and Fatty Liver Disease(McManaman JL et al. The Journal of Lipid Research,jlr.M035063. First Published on Feb. 12, 2013) Hyperlipidemia PLIN2CGTTAAACA TGG 116 Microdeletion guide2 ACAACCGGA CT Hyperlipidemia SREBPTTCACCCCGC ggg 117 Microdeletion Inhibition of SREBP by a Small guide1GGCGCTGAAT Molecule, Betulin, Improves Hyperlipidemia and InsulinResistance and Reduces Atherosclerotic Plaques (Tang Jet al. Cell Metabolism, Volume 13, Issue 1, 44-56, 5 Jan. 2011)Hyperlipidemia SREBP ACCACTACC agg 118 Microdeletion guide2 AGTCCGTCC AC

Example 19: Targeted Integration of Repair for Genes CarryingDisease-Causing Mutations; Reconstitution of Enzyme Deficiencies andOther Related Diseases

Study Design

I. Identification and Design of Gene Targets

Described in Example 22

II. Cloning of Guide Sequences and Repair Templates into a DeliverySystem

Described above in Example 22

Applicants clone DNA repair templates to include homology arms withdiseased allele as well a wild-type repair template

III. In Vitro Validation on Cell Lines

a. Transfection is described above in Example 22; Cas9, guide RNAs, andrepair template are co-transfected into relevant cell types.

b. Assay for repair in vitro

i. Applicants harvest cells 72-hours post-transfection and assay forrepair

ii. Briefly, Applicants amplify genomic region around repair templatePCR using high-fidelity polymerase. Applicants sequence products fordecreased incidence of mutant allele.

IV. In Vivo Proof of Principle in Animal

a. Delivery mechanisms are described above Examples 22 and 34.

b. Assay for repair in vivo

i. Applicants perform the repair assay as described in the in vitrodemonstration.

V. Therapeutic Applications

The CRISPR-Cas system is amenable for achieving tissue-specific andtemporally controlled targeted deletion of candidate disease genes.Examples include genes involved in cholesterol and fatty acidmetabolism, amyloid diseases, dominant negative diseases, latent viralinfections, among other disorders.

Example of one single missense mutation with repair template:

Disease GENE SPACER PAM Familial amyloid TTR AGCCTTTCTGAACACATGCA CGGpolyneuropathy (SEQ ID NO: 119) Mechanism References V30M repairTransthyretin mutations in health anddisease (Joao et al. Human Mutation,Volume 5, Issue 3, pages 191-196, 1995) V30M CCTGCCATCAATGTGGCC ATGCATGTGTTCAGAAAGGCT allele (SEQ ID NO: 120) WT CCTGCCATCAATGTGGCC GTGCATGTGTTCAGAAAGGCT allele (SEQ ID NO: 121)

Example 20: Therapeutic Application of the CRISPR-Cas System inGlaucoma, Amyloidosis, and Huntington's Disease

Glaucoma: Applicants design guide RNAs to target the first exon of themycilin (MYOC) gene. Applicants use adenovirus vectors (Ad5) to packageboth Cas9 as well as a guide RNA targeting the MYOC gene. Applicantsinject adenoviral vectors into the trabecular meshwork where cells havebeen implicated in the pathophysiology of glaucoma. Applicants initiallytest this out in mouse models carrying the mutated MYOC gene to seewhether they improve visual acuity and decrease pressure in the eyes.Therapeutic application in humans employ a similar strategy.

Amyloidosis: Applicants design guide RNAs to target the first exon ofthe transthyretin (TTR) gene in the liver. Applicants use AAV8 topackage Cas9 as well as guide RNA targeting the first exon of the TTRgene. AAV8 has been shown to have efficient targeting of the liver andwill be administered intravenously. Cas9 can be driven either usingliver specific promoters such as the albumin promoter, or using aconstitutive promoter. A pol3 promoter drives the guide RNA.

Alternatively, Applicants utilize hydrodynamic delivery of plasmid DNAto knockout the TTR gene. Applicants deliver a plasmid encoding Cas9 andthe guideRNA targeting Exon1 of TTR.

As a further alternative approach, Applicants administer a combinationof RNA (mRNA for Cas9, and guide RNA). RNA can be packaged usingliposomes such as Invivofectamine from Life Technologies and deliveredintravenously. To reduce RNA-induced immunogenicity, increase the levelof Cas9 expression and guide RNA stability, Applicants modify the Cas9mRNA using 5′ capping. Applicants also incorporate modified RNAnucleotides into Cas9 mRNA and guide RNA to increase their stability andreduce immunogenicity (e.g. activation of TLR). To increase efficiency,Applicants administer multiple doses of the virus, DNA, or RNA.

Huntington's Disease: Applicants design guide RNA based on allelespecific mutations in the HTT gene of patients. For example, in apatient who is heterozygous for HTT with expanded CAG repeat, Applicantsidentify nucleotide sequences unique to the mutant HTT allele and use itto design guideRNA. Applicants ensure that the mutant base is locatedwithin the last 9 bp of the guide RNA (which Applicants have ascertainedhas the ability to discriminate between single DNA base mismatchesbetween the target size and the guide RNA).

Applicants package the mutant HTT allele specific guide RNA and Cas9into AAV9 and deliver into the striatum of Huntington's patients. Virusis injected into the striatum stereotactically via a craniotomy. AAV9 isknown to transduce neurons efficiently. Applicants drive Cas9 using aneuron specific promoter such as human Synapsin I.

Example 21: Therapeutic Application of the CRISPR-Cas System in HIV

Chronic viral infection is a source of significant morbidity andmortality. While there exists for many of these viruses conventionalantiviral therapies that effectively target various aspects of viralreplication, current therapeutic modalities are usually non-curative innature due to “viral latency.” By its nature, viral latency ischaracterized by a dormant phase in the viral life cycle without activeviral production. During this period, the virus is largely able to evadeboth immune surveillance and conventional therapeutics allowing for itto establish long-standing viral reservoirs within the host from whichsubsequent re-activation can permit continued propagation andtransmission of virus. Key to viral latency is the ability to stablymaintain the viral genome, accomplished either through episomal orproviral latency, which stores the viral genome in the cytoplasm orintegrates it into the host genome, respectively. In the absence ofeffective vaccinations which would prevent primary infection, chronicviral infections characterized by latent reservoirs and episodes oflytic activity can have significant consequences: human papilloma virus(HPV) can result in cervical cancer, hepatitis C virus (HCV) predisposesto hepatocellular carcinoma, and human immunodeficiency virus eventuallydestroys the host immune system resulting in susceptibility toopportunistic infections. As such, these infections require life-longuse of currently available antiviral therapeutics. Further complicatingmatters is the high mutability of many of these viral genomes which leadto the evolution of resistant strains for which there exists noeffective therapy.

The CRISPR-Cas system is a bacterial adaptive immune system able toinduce double-stranded DNA breaks (DSB) in a multiplex-able,sequence-specific manner and has been recently re-constituted withinmammalian cell systems. It has been shown that targeting DNA with one ornumerous guide-RNAs can result in both indels and deletions of theintervening sequences, respectively. As such, this new technologyrepresents a means by which targeted and multiplexed DNA mutagenesis canbe accomplished within a single cell with high efficiency andspecificity. Consequently, delivery of the CRISPR-Cas system directedagainst viral DNA sequences could allow for targeted disruption anddeletion of latent viral genomes even in the absence of ongoing viralproduction.

As an example, chronic infection by HIV-1 represents a global healthissue with 33 million individuals infected and an annual incidence of2.6 million infections. The use of the multimodal highly activeantiretroviral therapy (HAART), which simultaneously targets multipleaspects of viral replication, has allowed HIV infection to be largelymanaged as a chronic, not terminal, illness. Without treatment,progression of HIV to AIDS occurs usually within 9-10 years resulting indepletion of the host immune system and occurrence of opportunisticinfections usually leading to death soon thereafter. Secondary to virallatency, discontinuation of HAART invariably leads to viral rebound.Moreover, even temporary disruptions in therapy can select for resistantstrains of HIV uncontrollable by available means. Additionally, thecosts of HAART therapy are significant: within the US $10,000-15,0000per person per year. As such, treatment approaches directly targetingthe HIV genome rather than the process of viral replication represents ameans by which eradication of latent reservoirs could allow for acurative therapeutic option.

Development and delivery of an HIV-1 targeted CRISPR-Cas systemrepresents a unique approach differentiable from existing means oftargeted DNA mutagenesis, i.e. ZFN and TALENs, with numerous therapeuticimplications. Targeted disruption and deletion of the HIV-1 genome byCRISPR-mediated DSB and indels in conjunction with HAART could allow forsimultaneous prevention of active viral production as well as depletionof latent viral reservoirs within the host.

Once integrated within the host immune system, the CRISPR-Cas systemallows for generation of a HIV-1 resistant sub-population that, even inthe absence of complete viral eradication, could allow for maintenanceand re-constitution of host immune activity. This could potentiallyprevent primary infection by disruption of the viral genome preventingviral production and integration, representing a means to “vaccination”.Multiplexed nature of the CRISPR-Cas system allows targeting of multipleaspects of the genome simultaneously within individual cells.

As in HAART, viral escape by mutagenesis is minimized by requiringacquisition of multiple adaptive mutations concurrently. Multiplestrains of HIV-1 can be targeted simultaneously which minimizes thechance of super-infection and prevents subsequent creation of newrecombinants strains. Nucleotide, rather than protein, mediatedsequence-specificity of the CRISPR-Cas system allows for rapidgeneration of therapeutics without need for significantly alteringdelivery mechanism.

In order to accomplish this, Applicants generate CRISPR-Cas guide RNAsthat target the vast majority of the HIV-1 genome while taking intoaccount HIV-1 strain variants for maximal coverage and effectiveness.Sequence analyses of genomic conservation between HIV-1 subtypes andvariants should allow for targeting of flanking conserved regions of thegenome with the aims of deleting intervening viral sequences orinduction of frame-shift mutations which would disrupt viral genefunctions.

Applicants accomplish delivery of the CRISPR-Cas system by conventionaladenoviral or lentiviral-mediated infection of the host immune system.Depending on approach, host immune cells could be a) isolated,transduced with CRISPR-Cas, selected, and re-introduced in to the hostor b) transduced in vivo by systemic delivery of the CRISPR-Cas system.The first approach allows for generation of a resistant immunepopulation whereas the second is more likely to target latent viralreservoirs within the host.

Examples of potential HIV-1 targeted spacersadapted from Mcintyre et al, which generatedshRNAs against HIV-1 optimized for maximal coverage of HIV-1 variants.(SEQ ID NO: 122) CACTGCTTAAGCCTCGCTCGAGG (SEQ ID NO: 123)TCACCAGCAATATTCGCTCGAGG (SEQ ID NO: 124) CACCAGCAATATTCCGCTCGAGG(SEQ ID NO: 125) TAGCAACAGACATACGCTCGAGG (SEQ ID NO: 126)GGGCAGTAGTAATACGCTCGAGG (SEQ ID NO: 127) CCAATTCCCATACATTATTGTAC

Example 22: Targeted Correction of deltaF508 or Other Mutations inCystic Fibrosis

An aspect of the invention provides for a pharmaceutical compositionthat may comprise an CRISPR-Cas gene therapy particle and abiocompatible pharmaceutical carrier. According to another aspect, amethod of gene therapy for the treatment of a subject having a mutationin the CFTR gene comprises administering a therapeutically effectiveamount of a CRISPR-Cas gene therapy particle to the cells of a subject.

This Example demonstrates gene transfer or gene delivery of a CRISPR-Cassystem in airways of subject or a patient in need thereof, sufferingfrom cystic fibrosis or from cystic fibrosis related symptoms, usingadeno-associated virus (AAV) particles.

Study Design: Subjects or patients in need there of: Human, non-primatehuman, canine, feline, bovine, equine and other domestic animals,related. This study tests efficacy of gene transfer of a CRISPR-Cassystem by a AAV vector. Applicants determine transgene levels sufficientfor gene expression and utilize a CRISPR-Cas system comprising a Cas9enzyme to target deltaF508 or other CFTR-inducing mutations.

The treated subjects receive pharmaceutically effective amount ofaerosolized AAV vector system per lung endobronchially delivered whilespontaneously breathing. The control subjects receive equivalent amountof a pseudotyped AAV vector system with an internal control gene. Thevector system may be delivered along with a pharmaceutically acceptableor biocompatible pharmaceutical carrier. Three weeks or an appropriatetime interval following vector administration, treated subjects aretested for amelioration of cystic fibrosis related symptoms.

Applicants Use an Adenovirus or an AAV Particle.

Applicants clone the following gene constructs, each operably linked toone or more regulatory sequences (Cbh or EF1a promoter for Cas9, U6 orH1 promoter for chimeric guide RNA), into one or more adenovirus or AAVvectors or any other compatible vector: A CFTRdelta508 targetingchimeric guide RNA (FIG. 31B), a repair template for deltaF508 mutation(FIG. 31C) and a codon optimized Cas9 enzyme with optionally one or morenuclear localization signal or sequence(s) (NLS(s)), e.g., two (2) NLSs.

Identification of Cas9 Target Site

Applicants analyzed the human CFTR genomic locus and identified the Cas9target site (FIG. 31A). (PAM may contain a NGG or a NNAGAAW motif).

Gene Repair Strategy

Applicants introduce an adenovirus/AAV vector system comprising a Cas9(or Cas9 nickase) and the guide RNA along with a adenovirus/AAV vectorsystem comprising the homology repair template containing the F508residue into the subject via one of the methods of delivery discussedearlier. The CRISPR-Cas system is guided by the CFTRdelta 508 chimericguide RNA and targets a specific site of the CFTR genomic locus to benicked or cleaved. After cleavage, the repair template is inserted intothe cleavage site via homologous recombination correcting the deletionthat results in cystic fibrosis or causes cystic fibrosis relatedsymptoms. This strategy to direct delivery and provide systemicintroduction of CRISPR systems with appropriate guide RNAs can beemployed to target genetic mutations to edit or otherwise manipulategenes that cause metabolic, liver, kidney and protein diseases anddisorders such as those in Table B.

Example 23: Generation of Gene Knockout Cell Library

This example demonstrates how to generate a library of cells where eachcell has a single gene knocked out:

Applicants make a library of ES cells where each cell has a single geneknocked out, and the entire library of ES cells will have every singlegene knocked out. This library is useful for the screening of genefunction in cellular processes as well as diseases.

To make this cell library, Applicants integrate Cas9 driven by aninducible promoter (e.g. doxycycline inducible promoter) into the EScell. In addition, Applicants integrate a single guide RNA targeting aspecific gene in the ES cell. To make the ES cell library, Applicantssimply mix ES cells with a library of genes encoding guide RNAstargeting each gene in the human genome. Applicants first introduce asingle BxB1 attB site into the AAVS1 locus of the human ES cell. ThenApplicants use the BxB1 integrase to facilitate the integration ofindividual guide RNA genes into the BxB1 attB site in AAVS1 locus. Tofacilitate integration, each guide RNA gene is contained on a plasmidthat carries of a single attP site. This way BxB1 will recombine theattB site in the genome with the attP site on the guide RNA containingplasmid.

To generate the cell library, Applicants take the library of cells thathave single guide RNAs integrated and induce Cas9 expression. Afterinduction, Cas9 mediates double strand break at sites specified by theguide RNA. To verify the diversity of this cell library, Applicantscarry out whole exome sequencing to ensure that Applicants are able toobserve mutations in every single targeted gene. This cell library canbe used for a variety of applications, including who library-basedscreens, or can be sorted into individual cell clones to facilitaterapid generation of clonal cell lines with individual human genesknocked out.

Example 24: Engineering of Microalgae Using Cas9

Methods of Delivering Cas9

Method 1: Applicants deliver Cas9 and guide RNA using a vector thatexpresses Cas9 under the control of a constitutive promoter such asHsp70A-Rbc S2 or Beta2-tubulin.

Method 2: Applicants deliver Cas9 and T7 polymerase using vectors thatexpresses Cas9 and T7 polymerase under the control of a constitutivepromoter such as Hsp70A-Rbc S2 or Beta2-tubulin. Guide RNA will bedelivered using a vector containing T7 promoter driving the guide RNA.

Method 3: Applicants deliver Cas9 mRNA and in vitro transcribed guideRNA to algae cells. RNA can be in vitro transcribed. Cas9 mRNA willconsist of the coding region for Cas9 as well as 3′UTR from Copl toensure stabilization of the Cas9 mRNA.

For Homologous recombination, Applicants provide an additional homologydirected repair template.

Sequence for a cassette driving the expression of Cas9 under the controlof beta-2 tubulin promoter, followed by the 3′ UTR of Cop1. (SEQ ID NO:128)

TCTTTCTTGCGCTATGACACTTCCAGCAAAAGGTAGGGCGGGCTGCGAGACGGCTTCCCGGCGCTGCATGCAACACCGATGATGCTTCGACCCCCCGAAGCTCCTTCGGGGCTGCATGGGCGCTCCGATGCCGCTCCAGGGCGAGCGCTGTTTAAATAGCCAGGCCCCCGATTGCAAAGACATTATAGCGAGCTACCAAAGCCATATTCAAACACCTAGATCACTACCACTTCTACACAGGCCACTCGAGCTTGTGATCGCACTCCGCTAAGGGGGCGCCTCTTCCTCTTCGTTTCAGTCACAACCCGCAAACATGTACCCATACGATGTTCCAGATTACGCTTCGCCGAAGAAAAAGCGCAAGGTCGAAGCGTCCGACAAGAAGTACAGCATCGGCCTGGACATCGGCACCAACTCTGTGGGCTGGGCCGTGATCACCGACGAGTACAAGGTGCCCAGCAAGAAATTCAAGGTGCTGGGCAACACCGACCGGCACAGCATCAAGAAGAACCTGATCGGAGCCCTGCTGTTCGACAGCGGCGAAACAGCCGAGGCCACCCGGCTGAAGAGAACCGCCAGAAGAAGATACACCAGACGGAAGAACCGGATCTGCTATCTGCAAGAGATCTTCAGCAACGAGATGGCCAAGGTGGACGACAGCTTCTTCCACAGACTGGAAGAGTCCTTCCTGGTGGAAGAGGATAAGAAGCACGAGCGGCACCCCATCTTCGGCAACATCGTGGACGAGGTGGCCTACCACGAGAAGTACCCCACCATCTACCACCTGAGAAAGAAACTGGTGGACAGCACCGACAAGGCCGACCTGCGGCTGATCTATCTGGCCCTGGCCCACATGATCAAGTTCCGGGGCCACTTCCTGATCGAGGGCGACCTGAACCCCGACAACAGCGACGTGGACAAGCTGTTCATCCAGCTGGTGCAGACCTACAACCAGCTGTTCGAGGAAAACCCCATCAACGCCAGCGGCGTGGACGCCAAGGCCATCCTGTCTGCCAGACTGAGCAAGAGCAGACGGCTGGAAAATCTGATCGCCCAGCTGCCCGGCGAGAAGAAGAATGGCCTGTTCGGCAACCTGATTGCCCTGAGCCTGGGCCTGACCCCCAACTTCAAGAGCAACTTCGACCTGGCCGAGGATGCCAAACTGCAGCTGAGCAAGGACACCTACGACGACGACCTGGACAACCTGCTGGCCCAGATCGGCGACCAGTACGCCGACCTGTTTCTGGCCGCCAAGAACCTGTCCGACGCCATCCTGCTGAGCGACATCCTGAGAGTGAACACCGAGATCACCAAGGCCCCCCTGAGCGCCTCTATGATCAAGAGATACGACGAGCACCACCAGGACCTGACCCTGCTGAAAGCTCTCGTGCGGCAGCAGCTGCCTGAGAAGTACAAAGAGATTTTCTTCGACCAGAGCAAGAACGGCTACGCCGGCTACATTGACGGCGGAGCCAGCCAGGAAGAGTTCTACAAGTTCATCAAGCCCATCCTGGAAAAGATGGACGGCACCGAGGAACTGCTCGTGAAGCTGAACAGAGAGGACCTGCTGCGGAAGCAGCGGACCTTCGACAACGGCAGCATCCCCCACCAGATCCACCTGGGAGAGCTGCACGCCATTCTGCGGCGGCAGGAAGATTTTTACCCATTCCTGAAGGACAACCGGGAAAAGATCGAGAAGATCCTGACCTTCCGCATCCCCTACTACGTGGGCCCTCTGGCCAGGGGAAACAGCAGATTCGCCTGGATGACCAGAAAGAGCGAGGAAACCATCACCCCCTGGAACTTCGAGGAAGTGGTGGACAAGGGCGCTTCCGCCCAGAGCTTCATCGAGCGGATGACCAACTTCGATAAGAACCTGCCCAACGAGAAGGTGCTGCCCAAGCACAGCCTGCTGTACGAGTACTTCACCGTGTATAACGAGCTGACCAAAGTGAAATACGTGACCGAGGGAATGAGAAAGCCCGCCTTCCTGAGCGGCGAGCAGAAAAAGGCCATCGTGGACCTGCTGTTCAAGACCAACCGGAAAGTGACCGTGAAGCAGCTGAAAGAGGACTACTTCAAGAAAATCGAGTGCTTCGACTCCGTGGAAATCTCCGGCGTGGAAGATCGGTTCAACGCCTCCCTGGGCACATACCACGATCTGCTGAAAATTATCAAGGACAAGGACTTCCTGGACAATGAGGAAAACGAGGACATTCTGGAAGATATCGTGCTGACCCTGACACTGTTTGAGGACAGAGAGATGATCGAGGAACGGCTGAAAACCTATGCCCACCTGTTCGACGACAAAGTGATGAAGCAGCTGAAGCGGCGGAGATACACCGGCTGGGGCAGGCTGAGCCGGAAGCTGATCAACGGCATCCGGGACAAGCAGTCCGGCAAGACAATCCTGGATTTCCTGAAGTCCGACGGCTTCGCCAACAGAAACTTCATGCAGCTGATCCACGACGACAGCCTGACCTTTAAAGAGGACATCCAGAAAGCCCAGGTGTCCGGCCAGGGCGATAGCCTGCACGAGCACATTGCCAATCTGGCCGGCAGCCCCGCCATTAAGAAGGGCATCCTGCAGACAGTGAAGGTGGTGGACGAGCTCGTGAAAGTGATGGGCCGGCACAAGCCCGAGAACATCGTGATCGAAATGGCCAGAGAGAACCAGACCACCCAGAAGGGACAGAAGAACAGCCGCGAGAGAATGAAGCGGATCGAAGAGGGCATCAAAGAGCTGGGCAGCCAGATCCTGAAAGAACACCCCGTGGAAAACACCCAGCTGCAGAACGAGAAGCTGTACCTGTACTACCTGCAGAATGGGCGGGATATGTACGTGGACCAGGAACTGGACATCAACCGGCTGTCCGACTACGATGTGGACCATATCGTGCCTCAGAGCTTTCTGAAGGACGACTCCATCGACAACAAGGTGCTGACCAGAAGCGACAAGAACCGGGGCAAGAGCGACAACGTGCCCTCCGAAGAGGTCGTGAAGAAGATGAAGAACTACTGGCGGCAGCTGCTGAACGCCAAGCTGATTACCCAGAGAAAGTTCGACAATCTGACCAAGGCCGAGAGAGGCGGCCTGAGCGAACTGGATAAGGCCGGCTTCATCAAGAGACAGCTGGTGGAAACCCGGCAGATCACAAAGCACGTGGCACAGATCCTGGACTCCCGGATGAACACTAAGTACGACGAGAATGACAAGCTGATCCGGGAAGTGAAAGTGATCACCCTGAAGTCCAAGCTGGTGTCCGATTTCCGGAAGGATTTCCAGTTTTACAAAGTGCGCGAGATCAACAACTACCACCACGCCCACGACGCCTACCTGAACGCCGTCGTGGGAACCGCCCTGATCAAAAAGTACCCTAAGCTGGAAAGCGAGTTCGTGTACGGCGACTACAAGGTGTACGACGTGCGGAAGATGATCGCCAAGAGCGAGCAGGAAATCGGCAAGGCTACCGCCAAGTACTTCTTCTACAGCAACATCATGAACTTTTTCAAGACCGAGATTACCCTGGCCAACGGCGAGATCCGGAAGCGGCCTCTGATCGAGACAAACGGCGAAACCGGGGAGATCGTGTGGGATAAGGGCCGGGATTTTGCCACCGTGCGGAAAGTGCTGAGCATGCCCCAAGTGAATATCGTGAAAAAGACCGAGGTGCAGACAGGCGGCTTCAGCAAAGAGTCTATCCTGCCCAAGAGGAACAGCGATAAGCTGATCGCCAGAAAGAAGGACTGGGACCCTAAGAAGTACGGCGGCTTCGACAGCCCCACCGTGGCCTATTCTGTGCTGGTGGTGGCCAAAGTGGAAAAGGGCAAGTCCAAGAAACTGAAGAGTGTGAAAGAGCTGCTGGGGATCACCATCATGGAAAGAAGCAGCTTCGAGAAGAATCCCATCGACTTTCTGGAAGCCAAGGGCTACAAAGAAGTGAAAAAGGACCTGATCATCAAGCTGCCTAAGTACTCCCTGTTCGAGCTGGAAAACGGCCGGAAGAGAATGCTGGCCTCTGCCGGCGAACTGCAGAAGGGAAACGAACTGGCCCTGCCCTCCAAATATGTGAACTTCCTGTACCTGGCCAGCCACTATGAGAAGCTGAAGGGCTCCCCCGAGGATAATGAGCAGAAACAGCTGTTTGTGGAACAGCACAAGCACTACCTGGACGAGATCATCGAGCAGATCAGCGAGTTCTCCAAGAGAGTGATCCTGGCCGACGCTAATCTGGACAAAGTGCTGTCCGCCTACAACAAGCACCGGGATAAGCCCATCAGAGAGCAGGCCGAGAATATCATCCACCTGTTTACCCTGACCAATCTGGGAGCCCCTGCCGCCTTCAAGTACTTTGACACCACCATCGACCGGAAGAGGTACACCAGCACCAAAGAGGTGCTGGACGCCACCCTGATCCACCAGAGCATCACCGGCCTGTACGAGACACGGATCGACCTGTCTCAGCTGGGAGGCGACAGCCCCAAGAAGAAGAGAAAGGTGGAGGCCAGCTAAGGATCCGGCAAGACTGGCCCCGCTTGGCAACGCAACAGTGAGCCCCTCCCTAGTGTGTTTGGGGATGTGACTATGTATTCGTGTGTTGGCCAACGGGTCAACCCGAACAGATTGATACCCGCCTTGGCATTTCCTGTCAGAATGTAACGTCAGTTGAT GGTACT

Sequence for a cassette driving the expression of T7 polymerase underthe control of beta-2 tubulin promoter, followed by the 3′ UTR of Copl:(SEQ ID NO: 129)

TCTTTCTTGCGCTATGACACTTCCAGCAAAAGGTAGGGCGGGCTGCGAGACGGCTTCCCGGCGCTGCATGCAACACCGATGATGCTTCGACCCCCCGAAGCTCCTTCGGGGCTGCATGGGCGCTCCGATGCCGCTCCAGGGCGAGCGCTGTTTAAATAGCCAGGCCCCCGATTGCAAAGACATTATAGCGAGCTACCAAAGCCATATTCAAACACCTAGATCACTACCACTTCTACACAGGCCACTCGAGCTTGTGATCGCACTCCGCTAAGGGGGCGCCTCTTCCTCTTCGTTTCAGTCACAACCCGCAAACatgcctaagaagaagaggaaggttaacacgattaacatcgctaagaacgacttctctgacatcgaactggctgctatcccgttcaacactctggctgaccattacggtgagcgtttagctcgcgaacagttggcccttgagcatgagtcttacgagatgggtgaagcacgcttccgcaagatgtttgagcgtcaacttaaagctggtgaggttgcggataacgctgccgccaagcctctcatcactaccctactccctaagatgattgcacgcatcaacgactggtttgaggaagtgaaagctaagcgcggcaagcgcccgacagccttccagttcctgcaagaaatcaagccggaagccgtagcgtacatcaccattaagaccactctggcttgcctaaccagtgctgacaatacaaccgttcaggctgtagcaagcgcaatcggtcgggccattgaggacgaggctcgcttcggtcgtatccgtgaccttgaagctaagcacttcaagaaaaacgttgaggaacaactcaacaagcgcgtagggcacgtctacaagaaagcatttatgcaagttgtcgaggctgacatgctctctaagggtctactcggtggcgaggcgtggtcttcgtggcataaggaagactctattcatgtaggagtacgctgcatcgagatgctcattgagtcaaccggaatggttagcttacaccgccaaaatgctggcgtagtaggtcaagactctgagactatcgaactcgcacctgaatacgctgaggctatcgcaacccgtgcaggtgcgctggctggcatctctccgatgttccaaccttgcgtagttcctcctaagccgtggactggcattactggtggtggctattgggctaacggtcgtcgtcctctggcgctggtgcgtactcacagtaagaaagcactgatgcgctacgaagacgtttacatgcctgaggtgtacaaagcgattaacattgcgcaaaacaccgcatggaaaatcaacaagaaagtcctagcggtcgccaacgtaatcaccaagtggaagcattgtccggtcgaggacatccctgcgattgagcgtgaagaactcccgatgaaaccggaagacatcgacatgaatcctgaggctctcaccgcgtggaaacgtgctgccgctgctgtgtaccgcaaggacaaggctcgcaagtctcgccgtatcagccttgagttcatgcttgagcaagccaataagtttgctaaccataaggccatctggttcccttacaacatggactggcgcggtcgtgtttacgctgtgtcaatgttcaacccgcaaggtaacgatatgaccaaaggactgcttacgctggcgaaaggtaaaccaatcggtaaggaaggttactactggctgaaaatccacggtgcaaactgtgcgggtgtcgacaaggttccgttccctgagcgcatcaagttcattgaggaaaaccacgagaacatcatggcttgcgctaagtctccactggagaacacttggtgggctgagcaagattctccgttctgcttccttgcgttctgctttgagtacgctggggtacagcaccacggcctgagctataactgctcccttccgctggcgtttgacgggtcttgctctggcatccagcacttctccgcgatgctccgagatgaggtaggtggtcgcgcggttaacttgcttcctagtgaaaccgttcaggacatctacgggattgttgctaagaaagtcaacgagattctacaagcagacgcaatcaatgggaccgataacgaagtagttaccgtgaccgatgagaacactggtgaaatctctgagaaagtcaagctgggcactaaggcactggctggtcaatggctggcttacggtgttactcgcagtgtgactaagcgttcagtcatgacgctggcttacgggtccaaagagttcggcttccgtcaacaagtgctggaagataccattcagccagctattgattccggcaagggtctgatgttcactcagccgaatcaggctgctggatacatggctaagctgatttgggaatctgtgagcgtgacggtggtagctgcggttgaagcaatgaactggcttaagtctgctgctaagctgctggctgctgaggtcaaagataagaagactggagagattcttcgcaagcgttgcgctgtgcattgggtaactcctgatggtttccctgtgtggcaggaatacaagaagcctattcagacgcgcttgaacctgatgttcctcggtcagttccgcttacagcctaccattaacaccaacaaagatagcgagattgatgcacacaaacaggagtctggtatcgctcctaactttgtacacagccaagacggtagccaccttcgtaagactgtagtgtgggcacacgagaagtacggaatcgaatcttttgcactgattcacgactccttcggtacgattccggctgacgctgcgaacctgttcaaagcagtgcgcgaaactatggttgacacatatgagtcttgtgatgtactggctgatttctacgaccagttcgctgaccagttgcacgagtctcaattggacaaaatgccagcacttccggctaaaggtaacttgaacctccgtgacatcttagagtcggacttcgcgttcgcgtaaGGATCCGGCAAGACTGGCCCCGCTTGGCAACGCAACAGTGAGCCCCTCCCTAGTGTGTTTGGGGATGTGACTATGTATTCGTGTGTTGGCCAACGGGTCAACCCGAACAGATTGATACCCGCCTTGGCATTTCCTGTCAGAATGTAACGTCAGTTGATGGTACT

Sequence of guide RNA driven by the T7 promoter (T7 promoter, Nsrepresent targeting sequence): (SEQ ID NO: 130)

gaaatTAATACGACTCACTATA NNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNgttttagagctaGAAAtagcaagttaaaataaggctagtccgttatcaacttgaaaaagtggcaccgagtcggtgcttttttt

Gene Delivery:

Chlamydomonas reinhardtii strain CC-124 and CC-125 from theChlamydomonas Resource Center will be used for electroporation.Electroporation protocol follows standard recommended protocol from theGeneArt Chlamydomonas Engineering kit.

Also, Applicants generate a line of Chlamydomonas reinhardtii thatexpresses Cas9 constitutively. This can be done by using pChlamy1(linearized using PvuI) and selecting for hygromycin resistant colonies.Sequence for pChlamy1 containing Cas9 is below. In this way to achievegene knockout one simply needs to deliver RNA for the guideRNA. Forhomologous recombination Applicants deliver guideRNA as well as alinearized homologous recombination template.

pChlamy1-Cas9: (SEQ ID NO: 131)TGCGGTATTTCACACCGCATCAGGTGGCACTTTTCGGGGAAATGTGCGCGGAACCCCTATTTGTTTATTTTTCTAAATACATTCAAATATGTATCCGCTCATGAGATTATCAAAAAGGATCTTCACCTAGATCCTTTTAAATTAAAAATGAAGTTTTAAATCAATCTAAAGTATATATGAGTAAACTTGGTCTGACAGTTACCAATGCTTAATCAGTGAGGCACCTATCTCAGCGATCTGTCTATTTCGTTCATCCATAGTTGCCTGACTCCCCGTCGTGTAGATAACTACGATACGGGAGGGCTTACCATCTGGCCCCAGTGCTGCAATGATACCGCGAGACCCACGCTCACCGGCTCCAGATTTATCAGCAATAAACCAGCCAGCCGGAAGGGCCGAGCGCAGAAGTGGTCCTGCAACTTTATCCGCCTCCATCCAGTCTATTAATTGTTGCCGGGAAGCTAGAGTAAGTAGTTCGCCAGTTAATAGTTTGCGCAACGTTGTTGCCATTGCTACAGGCATCGTGGTGTCACGCTCGTCGTTTGGTATGGCTTCATTCAGCTCCGGTTCCCAACGATCAAGGCGAGTTACATGATCCCCCATGTTGTGCAAAAAAGCGGTTAGCTCCTTCGGTCCTCCGATCGTTGTCAGAAGTAAGTTGGCCGCAGTGTTATCACTCATGGTTATGGCAGCACTGCATAATTCTCTTACTGTCATGCCATCCGTAAGATGCTTTTCTGTGACTGGTGAGTACTCAACCAAGTCATTCTGAGAATAGTGTATGCGGCGACCGAGTTGCTCTTGCCCGGCGTCAATACGGGATAATACCGCGCCACATAGCAGAACTTTAAAAGTGCTCATCATTGGAAAACGTTCTTCGGGGCGAAAACTCTCAAGGATCTTACCGCTGTTGAGATCCAGTTCGATGTAACCCACTCGTGCACCCAACTGATCTTCAGCATCTTTTACTTTCACCAGCGTTTCTGGGTGAGCAAAAACAGGAAGGCAAAATGCCGCAAAAAAGGGAATAAGGGCGACACGGAAATGTTGAATACTCATACTCTTCCTTTTTCAATATTATTGAAGCATTTATCAGGGTTATTGTCTCATGACCAAAATCCCTTAACGTGAGTTTTCGTTCCACTGAGCGTCAGACCCCGTAGAAAAGATCAAAGGATCTTCTTGAGATCCTTTTTTTCTGCGCGTAATCTGCTGCTTGCAAACAAAAAAACCACCGCTACCAGCGGTGGTTTGTTTGCCGGATCAAGAGCTACCAACTCTTTTTCCGAAGGTAACTGGCTTCAGCAGAGCGCAGATACCAAATACTGTTCTTCTAGTGTAGCCGTAGTTAGGCCACCACTTCAAGAACTCTGTAGCACCGCCTACATACCTCGCTCTGCTAATCCTGTTACCAGTGGCTGTTGCCAGTGGCGATAAGTCGTGTCTTACCGGGTTGGACTCAAGACGATAGTTACCGGATAAGGCGCAGCGGTCGGGCTGAACGGGGGGTTCGTGCACACAGCCCAGCTTGGAGCGAACGACCTACACCGAACTGAGATACCTACAGCGTGAGCTATGAGAAAGCGCCACGCTTCCCGAAGGGAGAAAGGCGGACAGGTATCCGGTAAGCGGCAGGGTCGGAACAGGAGAGCGCACGAGGGAGCTTCCAGGGGGAAACGCCTGGTATCTTTATAGTCCTGTCGGGTTTCGCCACCTCTGACTTGAGCGTCGATTTTTGTGATGCTCGTCAGGGGGGCGGAGCCTATGGAAAAACGCCAGCAACGCGGCCTTTTTACGGTTCCTGGCCTTTTGCTGGCCTTTTGCTCACATGTTCTTTCCTGCGTTATCCCCTGATTCTGTGGATAACCGTATTACCGCCTTTGAGTGAGCTGATACCGCTCGCCGCAGCCGAACGACCGAGCGCAGCGAGTCAGTGAGCGAGGAAGCGGTCGCTGAGGCTTGACATGATTGGTGCGTATGTTTGTATGAAGCTACAGGACTGATTTGGCGGGCTATGAGGGCGGGGGAAGCTCTGGAAGGGCCGCGATGGGGCGCGCGGCGTCCAGAAGGCGCCATACGGCCCGCTGGCGGCACCCATCCGGTATAAAAGCCCGCGACCCCGAACGGTGACCTCCACTTTCAGCGACAAACGAGCACTTATACATACGCGACTATTCTGCCGCTATACATAACCACTCAGCTAGCTTAAGATCCCATCAAGCTTGCATGCCGGGCGCGCCAGAAGGAGCGCAGCCAAACCAGGATGATGTTTGATGGGGTATTTGAGCACTTGCAACCCTTATCCGGAAGCCCCCTGGCCCACAAAGGCTAGGCGCCAATGCAAGCAGTTCGCATGCAGCCCCTGGAGCGGTGCCCTCCTGATAAACCGGCCAGGGGGCCTATGTTCTTTACTTTTTTACAAGAGAAGTCACTCAACATCTTAAAATGGCCAGGTGAGTCGACGAGCAAGCCCGGCGGATCAGGCAGCGTGCTTGCAGATTTGACTTGCAACGCCCGCATTGTGTCGACGAAGGCTTTTGGCTCCTCTGTCGCTGTCTCAAGCAGCATCTAACCCTGCGTCGCCGTTTCCATTTGCAGGAGATTCGAGGTACCATGTACCCATACGATGTTCCAGATTACGCTTCGCCGAAGAAAAAGCGCAAGGTCGAAGCGTCCGACAAGAAGTACAGCATCGGCCTGGACATCGGCACCAACTCTGTGGGCTGGGCCGTGATCACCGACGAGTACAAGGTGCCCAGCAAGAAATTCAAGGTGCTGGGCAACACCGACCGGCACAGCATCAAGAAGAACCTGATCGGAGCCCTGCTGTTCGACAGCGGCGAAACAGCCGAGGCCACCCGGCTGAAGAGAACCGCCAGAAGAAGATACACCAGACGGAAGAACCGGATCTGCTATCTGCAAGAGATCTTCAGCAACGAGATGGCCAAGGTGGACGACAGCTTCTTCCACAGACTGGAAGAGTCCTTCCTGGTGGAAGAGGATAAGAAGCACGAGCGGCACCCCATCTTCGGCAACATCGTGGACGAGGTGGCCTACCACGAGAAGTACCCCACCATCTACCACCTGAGAAAGAAACTGGTGGACAGCACCGACAAGGCCGACCTGCGGCTGATCTATCTGGCCCTGGCCCACATGATCAAGTTCCGGGGCCACTTCCTGATCGAGGGCGACCTGAACCCCGACAACAGCGACGTGGACAAGCTGTTCATCCAGCTGGTGCAGACCTACAACCAGCTGTTCGAGGAAAACCCCATCAACGCCAGCGGCGTGGACGCCAAGGCCATCCTGTCTGCCAGACTGAGCAAGAGCAGACGGCTGGAAAATCTGATCGCCCAGCTGCCCGGCGAGAAGAAGAATGGCCTGTTCGGCAACCTGATTGCCCTGAGCCTGGGCCTGACCCCCAACTTCAAGAGCAACTTCGACCTGGCCGAGGATGCCAAACTGCAGCTGAGCAAGGACACCTACGACGACGACCTGGACAACCTGCTGGCCCAGATCGGCGACCAGTACGCCGACCTGTTTCTGGCCGCCAAGAACCTGTCCGACGCCATCCTGCTGAGCGACATCCTGAGAGTGAACACCGAGATCACCAAGGCCCCCCTGAGCGCCTCTATGATCAAGAGATACGACGAGCACCACCAGGACCTGACCCTGCTGAAAGCTCTCGTGCGGCAGCAGCTGCCTGAGAAGTACAAAGAGATTTTCTTCGACCAGAGCAAGAACGGCTACGCCGGCTACATTGACGGCGGAGCCAGCCAGGAAGAGTTCTACAAGTTCATCAAGCCCATCCTGGAAAAGATGGACGGCACCGAGGAACTGCTCGTGAAGCTGAACAGAGAGGACCTGCTGCGGAAGCAGCGGACCTTCGACAACGGCAGCATCCCCCACCAGATCCACCTGGGAGAGCTGCACGCCATTCTGCGGCGGCAGGAAGATTTTTACCCATTCCTGAAGGACAACCGGGAAAAGATCGAGAAGATCCTGACCTTCCGCATCCCCTACTACGTGGGCCCTCTGGCCAGGGGAAACAGCAGATTCGCCTGGATGACCAGAAAGAGCGAGGAAACCATCACCCCCTGGAACTTCGAGGAAGTGGTGGACAAGGGCGCTTCCGCCCAGAGCTTCATCGAGCGGATGACCAACTTCGATAAGAACCTGCCCAACGAGAAGGTGCTGCCCAAGCACAGCCTGCTGTACGAGTACTTCACCGTGTATAACGAGCTGACCAAAGTGAAATACGTGACCGAGGGAATGAGAAAGCCCGCCTTCCTGAGCGGCGAGCAGAAAAAGGCCATCGTGGACCTGCTGTTCAAGACCAACCGGAAAGTGACCGTGAAGCAGCTGAAAGAGGACTACTTCAAGAAAATCGAGTGCTTCGACTCCGTGGAAATCTCCGGCGTGGAAGATCGGTTCAACGCCTCCCTGGGCACATACCACGATCTGCTGAAAATTATCAAGGACAAGGACTTCCTGGACAATGAGGAAAACGAGGACATTCTGGAAGATATCGTGCTGACCCTGACACTGTTTGAGGACAGAGAGATGATCGAGGAACGGCTGAAAACCTATGCCCACCTGTTCGACGACAAAGTGATGAAGCAGCTGAAGCGGCGGAGATACACCGGCTGGGGCAGGCTGAGCCGGAAGCTGATCAACGGCATCCGGGACAAGCAGTCCGGCAAGACAATCCTGGATTTCCTGAAGTCCGACGGCTTCGCCAACAGAAACTTCATGCAGCTGATCCACGACGACAGCCTGACCTTTAAAGAGGACATCCAGAAAGCCCAGGTGTCCGGCCAGGGCGATAGCCTGCACGAGCACATTGCCAATCTGGCCGGCAGCCCCGCCATTAAGAAGGGCATCCTGCAGACAGTGAAGGTGGTGGACGAGCTCGTGAAAGTGATGGGCCGGCACAAGCCCGAGAACATCGTGATCGAAATGGCCAGAGAGAACCAGACCACCCAGAAGGGACAGAAGAACAGCCGCGAGAGAATGAAGCGGATCGAAGAGGGCATCAAAGAGCTGGGCAGCCAGATCCTGAAAGAACACCCCGTGGAAAACACCCAGCTGCAGAACGAGAAGCTGTACCTGTACTACCTGCAGAATGGGCGGGATATGTACGTGGACCAGGAACTGGACATCAACCGGCTGTCCGACTACGATGTGGACCATATCGTGCCTCAGAGCTTTCTGAAGGACGACTCCATCGACAACAAGGTGCTGACCAGAAGCGACAAGAACCGGGGCAAGAGCGACAACGTGCCCTCCGAAGAGGTCGTGAAGAAGATGAAGAACTACTGGCGGCAGCTGCTGAACGCCAAGCTGATTACCCAGAGAAAGTTCGACAATCTGACCAAGGCCGAGAGAGGCGGCCTGAGCGAACTGGATAAGGCCGGCTTCATCAAGAGACAGCTGGTGGAAACCCGGCAGATCACAAAGCACGTGGCACAGATCCTGGACTCCCGGATGAACACTAAGTACGACGAGAATGACAAGCTGATCCGGGAAGTGAAAGTGATCACCCTGAAGTCCAAGCTGGTGTCCGATTTCCGGAAGGATTTCCAGTTTTACAAAGTGCGCGAGATCAACAACTACCACCACGCCCACGACGCCTACCTGAACGCCGTCGTGGGAACCGCCCTGATCAAAAAGTACCCTAAGCTGGAAAGCGAGTTCGTGTACGGCGACTACAAGGTGTACGACGTGCGGAAGATGATCGCCAAGAGCGAGCAGGAAATCGGCAAGGCTACCGCCAAGTACTTCTTCTACAGCAACATCATGAACTTTTTCAAGACCGAGATTACCCTGGCCAACGGCGAGATCCGGAAGCGGCCTCTGATCGAGACAAACGGCGAAACCGGGGAGATCGTGTGGGATAAGGGCCGGGATTTTGCCACCGTGCGGAAAGTGCTGAGCATGCCCCAAGTGAATATCGTGAAAAAGACCGAGGTGCAGACAGGCGGCTTCAGCAAAGAGTCTATCCTGCCCAAGAGGAACAGCGATAAGCTGATCGCCAGAAAGAAGGACTGGGACCCTAAGAAGTACGGCGGCTTCGACAGCCCCACCGTGGCCTATTCTGTGCTGGTGGTGGCCAAAGTGGAAAAGGGCAAGTCCAAGAAACTGAAGAGTGTGAAAGAGCTGCTGGGGATCACCATCATGGAAAGAAGCAGCTTCGAGAAGAATCCCATCGACTTTCTGGAAGCCAAGGGCTACAAAGAAGTGAAAAAGGACCTGATCATCAAGCTGCCTAAGTACTCCCTGTTCGAGCTGGAAAACGGCCGGAAGAGAATGCTGGCCTCTGCCGGCGAACTGCAGAAGGGAAACGAACTGGCCCTGCCCTCCAAATATGTGAACTTCCTGTACCTGGCCAGCCACTATGAGAAGCTGAAGGGCTCCCCCGAGGATAATGAGCAGAAACAGCTGTTTGTGGAACAGCACAAGCACTACCTGGACGAGATCATCGAGCAGATCAGCGAGTTCTCCAAGAGAGTGATCCTGGCCGACGCTAATCTGGACAAAGTGCTGTCCGCCTACAACAAGCACCGGGATAAGCCCATCAGAGAGCAGGCCGAGAATATCATCCACCTGTTTACCCTGACCAATCTGGGAGCCCCTGCCGCCTTCAAGTACTTTGACACCACCATCGACCGGAAGAGGTACACCAGCACCAAAGAGGTGCTGGACGCCACCCTGATCCACCAGAGCATCACCGGCCTGTACGAGACACGGATCGACCTGTCTCAGCTGGGAGGCGACAGCCCCAAGAAGAAGAGAAAGGTGGAGGCCAGCTAACATATGATTCGAATGTCTTTCTTGCGCTATGACACTTCCAGCAAAAGGTAGGGCGGGCTGCGAGACGGCTTCCCGGCGCTGCATGCAACACCGATGATGCTTCGACCCCCCGAAGCTCCTTCGGGGCTGCATGGGCGCTCCGATGCCGCTCCAGGGCGAGCGCTGTTTAAATAGCCAGGCCCCCGATTGCAAAGACATTATAGCGAGCTACCAAAGCCATATTCAAACACCTAGATCACTACCACTTCTACACAGGCCACTCGAGCTTGTGATCGCACTCCGCTAAGGGGGCGCCTCTTCCTCTTCGTTTCAGTCACAACCCGCAAACATGACACAAGAATCCCTGTTACTTCTCGACCGTATTGATTCGGATGATTCCTACGCGAGCCTGCGGAACGACCAGGAATTCTGGGAGGTGAGTCGACGAGCAAGCCCGGCGGATCAGGCAGCGTGCTTGCAGATTTGACTTGCAACGCCCGCATTGTGTCGACGAAGGCTTTTGGCTCCTCTGTCGCTGTCTCAAGCAGCATCTAACCCTGCGTCGCCGTTTCCATTTGCAGCCGCTGGCCCGCCGAGCCCTGGAGGAGCTCGGGCTGCCGGTGCCGCCGGTGCTGCGGGTGCCCGGCGAGAGCACCAACCCCGTACTGGTCGGCGAGCCCGGCCCGGTGATCAAGCTGTTCGGCGAGCACTGGTGCGGTCCGGAGAGCCTCGCGTCGGAGTCGGAGGCGTACGCGGTCCTGGCGGACGCCCCGGTGCCGGTGCCCCGCCTCCTCGGCCGCGGCGAGCTGCGGCCCGGCACCGGAGCCTGGCCGTGGCCCTACCTGGTGATGAGCCGGATGACCGGCACCACCTGGCGGTCCGCGATGGACGGCACGACCGACCGGAACGCGCTGCTCGCCCTGGCCCGCGAACTCGGCCGGGTGCTCGGCCGGCTGCACAGGGTGCCGCTGACCGGGAACACCGTGCTCACCCCCCATTCCGAGGTCTTCCCGGAACTGCTGCGGGAACGCCGCGCGGCGACCGTCGAGGACCACCGCGGGTGGGGCTACCTCTCGCCCCGGCTGCTGGACCGCCTGGAGGACTGGCTGCCGGACGTGGACACGCTGCTGGCCGGCCGCGAACCCCGGTTCGTCCACGGCGACCTGCACGGGACCAACATCTTCGTGGACCTGGCCGCGACCGAGGTCACCGGGATCGTCGACTTCACCGACGTCTATGCGGGAGACTCCCGCTACAGCCTGGTGCAACTGCATCTCAACGCCTTCCGGGGCGACCGCGAGATCCTGGCCGCGCTGCTCGACGGGGCGCAGTGGAAGCGGACCGAGGACTTCGCCCGCGAACTGCTCGCCTTCACCTTCCTGCACGACTTCGAGGTGTTCGAGGAGACCCCGCTGGATCTCTCCGGCTTCACCGATCCGGAGGAACTGGCGCAGTTCCTCTGGGGGCCGCCGGACACCGCCCCCGGCGCCTGATAAGGATCCGGCAAGACTGGCCCCGCTTGGCAACGCAACAGTGAGCCCCTCCCTAGTGTGTTTGGGGATGTGACTATGTATTCGTGTGTTGGCCAACGGGTCAACCCGAACAGATTGATACCCGCCTTGGCATTTCCTGTCAGAATGTAACGTCAGTTGATGGTA CT

For all modified Chlamydomonas reinhardtii cells, Applicants use PCR,SURVEYOR nuclease assay, and DNA sequencing to verify successfulmodification.

Example 25: Use of Cas9 to Target a Variety of Disease Types

Diseases that Involve Mutations in Protein Coding Sequence:

Dominant disorders may be targeted by inactivating the dominant negativeallele. Applicants use Cas9 to target a unique sequence in the dominantnegative allele and introduce a mutation via NHEJ. The NHEJ-inducedindel may be able to introduce a frame-shift mutation in the dominantnegative allele and eliminate the dominant negative protein. This maywork if the gene is haplo-sufficient (e.g. MYOC mutation inducedglaucoma and Huntington's disease).

Recessive disorders may be targeted by repairing the disease mutation inboth alleles. For dividing cells, Applicants use Cas9 to introducedouble strand breaks near the mutation site and increase the rate ofhomologous recombination using an exogenous recombination template. Fordividing cells, this may be achieved using multiplexed nickase activityto catalyze the replacement of the mutant sequence in both alleles viaNHEJ-mediated ligation of an exogenous DNA fragment carryingcomplementary overhangs.

Applicants also use Cas9 to introduce protective mutations (e.g.inactivation of CCR5 to prevent HIV infection, inactivation of PCSK9 forcholesterol reduction, or introduction of the A673T into APP to reducethe likelihood of Alzheimer's disease).

Diseases that Involve Non-Coding Sequences

Applicants use Cas9 to disrupt non-coding sequences in the promoterregion, to alter transcription factor binding sites and alter enhanceror repressor elements. For example, Cas9 may be used to excise out theKlf1 enhancer EHS1 in hematopoietic stem cells to reduce BCL11a levelsand reactivate fetal globin gene expression in differentiatederythrocytes

Applicants also use Cas9 to disrupt functional motifs in the 5′ or 3′untranslated regions. For example, for the treatment of myotonicdystrophy, Cas9 may be used to remove CTG repeat expansions in the DMPKgene.

Example 26: Multiplexed Nickase

Aspects of optimization and the teachings of Cas9 detailed in thisapplication may also be used to generate Cas9 nickases. Applicants useCas9 nickases in combination with pairs of guide RNAs to generate DNAdouble strand breaks with defined overhangs. When two pairs of guideRNAs are used, it is possible to excise an intervening DNA fragment. Ifan exogenous piece of DNA is cleaved by the two pairs of guide RNAs togenerate compatible overhangs with the genomic DNA, then the exogenousDNA fragment may be ligated into the genomic DNA to replace the excisedfragment. For example, this may be used to remove trinucleotide repeatexpansion in the huntintin (HTT) gene to treat Huntington's Disease.

If an exogenous DNA that bears fewer number of CAG repeats is provided,then it may be able to generate a fragment of DNA that bears the sameoverhangs and can be ligated into the HTT genomic locus and replace theexcised fragment.

HTT locus with ...CCGTGCCGGGCGGGAGACCGCCATGG    GGCCCGGCTGTGGCTGAGGAGC... fragment ...GGCACGGCCCGCCCTCTGGCTGGGCCGGGCCGACACCGACTCCTCG... excised by Cas9 nickase and two pairs ofguide RNAs + exogenous DNA       CGACCCTGGAAA...reduced number of CAG repeats ...CCCCGCCGCCACCC fragment withGGTACCGCTGGGACCTTT... ...GGGGCGGCGG fewer number of CAG repeatsalso cleaved by Cas9 nicakse and the two pairs of guide RNAs(SEQ ID NOS: 132 to 139)

The ligation of the exogenous DNA fragment into the genome does notrequire homologous recombination machineries and therefore this methodmay be used in post-mitotic cells such as neurons.

Example 27: Delivery of CRISPR System

Cas9 and its chimeric guide RNA, or combination of tracrRNA and crRNA,can be delivered either as DNA or RNA. Delivery of Cas9 and guide RNAboth as RNA (normal or containing base or backbone modifications)molecules can be used to reduce the amount of time that Cas9 proteinpersist in the cell. This may reduce the level of off-target cleavageactivity in the target cell. Since delivery of Cas9 as mRNA takes timeto be translated into protein, it might be advantageous to deliver theguide RNA several hours following the delivery of Cas9 mRNA, to maximizethe level of guide RNA available for interaction with Cas9 protein.

In situations where guide RNA amount is limiting, it may be desirable tointroduce Cas9 as mRNA and guide RNA in the form of a DNA expressioncassette with a promoter driving the expression of the guide RNA. Thisway the amount of guide RNA available will be amplified viatranscription.

A variety of delivery systems can be introduced to introduce Cas9 (DNAor RNA) and guide RNA (DNA or RNA) into the host cell. These include theuse of liposomes, viral vectors, electroporation, nanoparticles,nanowires (Shalek et al., Nano Letters, 2012), exosomes. Moleculartrojan horses liposomes (Pardridge et al., Cold Spring Harb Protoc;2010; doi:10.1101/pdb.prot5407) may be used to deliver Cas9 and guideRNA across the blood brain barrier.

Example 28: Therapeutic Strategies for Trinucleotide Repeat Disorders

As previously mentioned in the application, the target polynucleotide ofa CRISPR complex may include a number of disease-associated genes andpolynucleotides and some of these disease associated gene may belong toa set of genetic disorders referred to as Trinucleotide repeat disorders(referred to as also trinucleotide repeat expansion disorders, tripletrepeat expansion disorders or codon reiteration disorders).

These diseases are caused by mutations in which the trinucleotiderepeats of certain genes exceed the normal, stable threshold which mayusually differ in a gene. The discovery of more repeat expansiondisorders has allowed for the classification of these disorders into anumber of categories based on underlying similar characteristics.Huntington's disease (HD) and the spinocerebellar ataxias that arecaused by a CAG repeat expansion in protein-coding portions of specificgenes are included in Category I. Diseases or disorders with expansionsthat tend to make them phenotypically diverse and include expansions areusually small in magnitude and also found in exons of genes are includedin Category II. Category III includes disorders or diseases which arecharacterized by much larger repeat expansions than either Category I orII and are generally located outside protein coding regions. Examples ofCategory III diseases or disorders include but are not limited toFragile X syndrome, myotonic dystrophy, two of the spinocerebellarataxias, juvenile myoclonic epilepsy, and Friedreich's ataxia.

Similar therapeutic strategies, like the one mentioned for Friedreich'sataxia below may be adopted to address other trinucleotide repeat orexpansion disorders as well. For example, another triple repeat diseasethat can be treated using almost identical strategy is dystrophiamyotonica 1 (DM1), where there is an expanded CTG motif in the 3′ UTR.In Friedreich's ataxia, the disease results from expansion of GAAtrinucleotides in the first intron of frataxin (FXN). One therapeuticstrategy using CRISPR is to excise the GAA repeat from the first intron.The expanded GAA repeat is thought to affect the DNA structure and leadsto recruit the formation of heterochromatin which turn off the frataxingene (FIG. 32A).

Competitive Advantage Over Other Therapeutic Strategies are ListedBelow:

siRNA knockdown is not applicable in this case, as disease is due toreduced expression of frataxin. Viral gene therapy is currently beingexplored. HSV-1 based vectors were used to deliver the frataxin gene inanimal models and have shown therapeutic effect. However, long termefficacy of virus-based frataxin delivery suffer from several problems:First, it is difficult to regulate the expression of frataxin to matchnatural levels in health individuals, and second, long term overexpression of frataxin leads to cell death.

Nucleases may be used to excise the GAA repeat to restore healthygenotype, but Zinc Finger Nuclease and TALEN strategies require deliveryof two pairs of high efficacy nucleases, which is difficult for bothdelivery as well as nuclease engineering (efficient excision of genomicDNA by ZFN or TALEN is difficult to achieve).

In contrast to above strategies, the CRISPR-Cas system has clearadvantages. The Cas9 enzyme is more efficient and more multiplexible, bywhich it is meant that one or more targets can be set at the same time.So far, efficient excision of genomic DNA >30% by Cas9 in human cellsand may be as high as 30%, and may be improved in the future.Furthermore, with regard to certain trinucleotide repeat disorders likeHuntington's disease (HD), trinucleotide repeats in the coding regionmay be addressed if there are differences between the two alleles.Specifically, if a HD patient is heterozygous for mutant HTT and thereare nucleotide differences such as SNPs between the wt and mutant HTTalleles, then Cas9 may be used to specifically target the mutant HTTallele. ZFN or TALENs will not have the ability to distinguish twoalleles based on single base differences.

In adopting a strategy using the CRISPR-Cas 9 enzyme to addressFriedreich's ataxia, Applicants design a number of guide RNAs targetingsites flanking the GAA expansion and the most efficient and specificones are chosen (FIG. 32B).

Applicants deliver a combination of guide RNAs targeting the intron 1 ofFXN along with Cas9 to mediate excision of the GAA expansion region.AAV9 may be used to mediate efficient delivery of Cas9 and in the spinalcord.

If the Alu element adjacent to the GAA expansion is consideredimportant, there may be constraints to the number of sites that can betargeted but Applicants may adopt strategies to avoid disrupting it.

Alternative Strategies:

Rather than modifying the genome using Cas9, Applicants may alsodirectly activate the FXN gene using Cas9 (nuclease activitydeficient)-based DNA binding domain to target a transcription activationdomain to the FXN gene.

Example 29: Strategies for Minimizing Off-Target Cleavage Using Cas9Nickase

As previously mentioned in the application, Cas9 may be mutated tomediate single strand cleavage via one or more of the followingmutations: D10A, E762A, and H840A.

To mediate gene knockout via NHEJ, Applicants use a nickase version ofCas9 along with two guide RNAs. Off-target nicking by each individualguide RNA may be primarily repaired without mutation, double strandbreaks (which can lead to mutations via NHEJ) only occur when the targetsites are adjacent to each other. Since double strand breaks introducedby double nicking are not blunt, co-expression of end-processing enzymessuch as TREX1 will increase the level of NHEJ activity.

The following list of targets in tabular form are for genes involved inthe following diseases:

Lafora's Disease—target GSY1 or PPP1R3C (PTG) to reduce glycogen inneurons.

Hypercholesterolemia—target PCSK9

Target sequences are listed in pairs (L and R) with different number ofnucleotides in the spacer (0 to 3 bp). Each spacer may also be used byitself with the wild type Cas9 to introduce double strand break at thetarget locus.

(SEQ ID NO:) GYS1 (human) GGCC-L ACCCTTGTTAGCCACCTCCC 140 GGCC-RGAACGCAGTGCTCTTCGAAG 141 GGNCC-L CTCACGCCCTGCTCCGTGTA 142 GGNCC-RGGCGACAACTACTTCCTGGT 143 GGNNCC-L CTCACGCCCTGCTCCGTGTA 144 GGNNCC-RGGGCGACAACTACTTCCTGG 145 GGNNNCC-L CCTCTTCAGGGCCGGGGTGG 146 GGNNNCC-RGAGGACCCAGGTGGAACTGC 147 PCSK9 (human GGCC-L TCAGCTCCAGGCGGTCCTGG 148GGCC-R AGCAGCAGCAGCAGTGGCAG 149 GGNCC-L TGGGCACCGTCAGCTCCAGG 150 GGNCC-RCAGCAGTGGCAGCGGCCACC 151 GGNNCC-L ACCTCTCCCCTGGCCCTCAT 152 GGNNCC-RCCAGGACCGCCTGGAGCTGA 153 GGNNNCC-L CCGTCAGCTCCAGGCGGTCC 154 GGNNNCC-RAGCAGCAGCAGCAGTGGCAG 155 PPP1R3C GGCC-L ATGTGCCAAGCAAAGCCTCA 156(PTG (human GGCC-R TTCGGTCATGCCCGTGGATG 157 GGNCC-L GTCGTTGAAATTCATCGTAC158 GGNCC-R ACCACCTGTGAAGAGTTTCC 159 GGNNCC-L CGTCGTTGAAATTCATCGTA 160GGNNCC-R ACCACCTGTGAAGAGTTTCC 161 Gys1 (mouse GGCC-LGAACGCAGTGCTTTTCGAGG 162 GGCC-R ACCCTTGTTGGCCACCTCCC 163 GGNCC-LGGTGACAACTACTATCTGGT 164 GGNCC-R CTCACACCCTGCTCCGTGTA 165 GGNNCC-LGGGTGACAACTACTATCTGG 166 GGNNCC-R CTCACACCCTGCTCCGTGTA 167 GGNNNCC-LCGAGAACGCAGTGCTTTTCG 168 GGNNNCC-R ACCCTTGTTGGCCACCTCCC 169 PPP1R3CGGCC-L ATGAGCCAAGCAAATCCTCA 170 (PTG (mouse GGCC-R TTCCGTCATGCCCGTGGACA171 GGNCC-L CTTCGTTGAAAACCATTGTA 172 GGNCC-R CCACCTCTGAAGAGTTTCCT 173GGNNCC-L CTTCGTTGAAAACCATTGTA 174 GGNNCC-R ACCACCTCTGAAGAGTTTCC 175GGNNNCC-L CTTCCACTCACTCTGCGATT 176 GGNNNCC-R ACCATGTCTCAGTGTCAAGC 177PCSK9 (mouse GGCC-L GGCGGCAACAGCGGCAACAG 178 GGCC-R ACTGCTCTGCGTGGCTGCGG179 GGNNCC-L CCGCAGCCACGCAGAGCAGT 180 GGNNCC-R GCACCTCTCCTCGCCCCGAT 181

Alternative Strategies for Improving Stability of Guide RNA andIncreasing Specificity

1. Nucleotides in the 5′ of the guide RNA may be linked via thiolesterlinkages rather than phosphoester linkage like in natural RNA.Thiolester linkage may prevent the guide RNA from being digested byendogenous RNA degradation machinery.

2. Nucleotides in the guide sequence (5′ 20 bp) of the guide RNA can usebridged nucleic acids (BNA) as the bases to improve the bindingspecificity.

Example 30: CRISPR-Cas for Rapid, Multiplex Genome Editing

Aspects of the invention relate to protocols and methods by whichefficiency and specificity of gene modification may be tested within 3-4days after target design, and modified clonal cell lines may be derivedwithin 2-3 weeks.

Programmable nucleases are powerful technologies for mediating genomealteration with high precision. The RNA-guided Cas9 nuclease from themicrobial CRISPR adaptive immune system can be used to facilitateefficient genome editing in eukaryotic cells by simply specifying a20-nt targeting sequence in its guide RNA. Applicants describe a set ofprotocols for applying Cas9 to facilitate efficient genome editing inmammalian cells and generate cell lines for downstream functionalstudies. Beginning with target design, efficient and specific genemodification can be achieved within 3-4 days, and modified clonal celllines can be derived within 2-3 weeks.

The ability to engineer biological systems and organisms holds enormouspotential for applications across basic science, medicine, andbiotechnology. Programmable sequence-specific endonucleases thatfacilitate precise editing of endogenous genomic loci are now enablingsystematic interrogation of genetic elements and causal geneticvariations in a broad range of species, including those that have notbeen genetically tractable previously. A number of genome editingtechnologies have emerged in recent years, including zinc fingernucleases (ZFNs), transcription activator-like effector nucleases(TALENs), and the RNA-guided CRISPR-Cas nuclease system. The first twotechnologies use a common strategy of tethering endonuclease catalyticdomains to modular DNA-binding proteins for inducing targeted DNA doublestranded breaks (DSB) at specific genomic loci. By contrast, Cas9 is anuclease guided by small RNAs through Watson-Crick base-pairing withtarget DNA, presenting a system that is easy to design, efficient, andwell-suited for high-throughput and multiplexed gene editing for avariety of cell types and organisms. Here Applicants describe a set ofprotocols for applying the recently developed Cas9 nuclease tofacilitate efficient genome editing in mammalian cells and generate celllines for downstream functional studies.

Like ZFNs and TALENs, Cas9 promotes genome editing by stimulating DSB atthe target genomic loci. Upon cleavage by Cas9, the target locusundergoes one of two major pathways for DNA damage repair, theerror-prone non-homologous end joining (NHEJ) or the high-fidelityhomology directed repair (HDR) pathway. Both pathways may be utilized toachieve the desired editing outcome.

NHEJ: In the absence of a repair template, the NHEJ process re-ligatesDSBs, which may leave a scar in the form of indel mutations. Thisprocess can be harnessed to achieve gene knockouts, as indels occurringwithin a coding exon may lead to frameshift mutations and a prematurestop codon. Multiple DSBs may also be exploited to mediate largerdeletions in the genome.

HDR: Homology directed repair is an alternate major DNA repair pathwayto NHEJ. Although HDR typically occurs at lower frequencies than NHEJ,it may be harnessed to generate precise, defined modifications at atarget locus in the presence of an exogenously introduced repairtemplate. The repair template may be either in the form of doublestranded DNA, designed similarly to conventional DNA targetingconstructs with homology arms flanking the insertion sequence, orsingle-stranded DNA oligonucleotides (ssODNs). The latter provides aneffective and simple method for making small edits in the genome, suchas the introduction of single nucleotide mutations for probing causalgenetic variations. Unlike NHEJ, HDR is generally active only individing cells and its efficiency varies depending on the cell type andstate.

Overview of CRISPR: The CRISPR-Cas system, by contrast, is at minimum atwo-component system consisting of the Cas9 nuclease and a short guideRNA. Re-targeting of Cas9 to different loci or simultaneous editing ofmultiple genes simply requires cloning a different 20-bpoligonucleotide. Although specificity of the Cas9 nuclease has yet to bethoroughly elucidated, the simple Watson-Crick base-pairing of theCRISPR-Cas system is likely more predictable than that of ZFN or TALENdomains.

The type II CRISPR-Cas (clustered regularly interspaced shortpalindromic repeats) is a bacterial adaptive immune system that usesCas9, to cleave foreign genetic elements. Cas9 is guided by a pair ofnon-coding RNAs, a variable crRNA and a required auxiliary tracrRNA. ThecrRNA contains a 20-nt guide sequence determines specificity by locatingthe target DNA via Watson-Crick base-pairing. In the native bacterialsystem, multiple crRNAs are co-transcribed to direct Cas9 againstvarious targets. In the CRISPR-Cas system derived from Streptococcuspyogenes, the target DNA must immediately precede a 5′-NGG/NRGprotospacer adjacent motif (PAM), which can vary for other CRISPRsystems.

CRISPR-Cas is reconstituted in mammalian cells through the heterologousexpression of human codon-optimized Cas9 and the requisite RNAcomponents. Furthermore, the crRNA and tracrRNA can be fused to create achimeric, synthetic guide RNA (sgRNA). Cas9 can thus be re-directedtoward any target of interest by altering the 20-nt guide sequencewithin the sgRNA.

Given its ease of implementation and multiplex capability, Cas9 has beenused to generate engineered eukaryotic cells carrying specific mutationsvia both NHEJ and HDR. In addition, direct injection of sgRNA and mRNAencoding Cas9 into embryos has enabled the rapid generation oftransgenic mice with multiple modified alleles; these results holdpromise for editing organisms that are otherwise geneticallyintractable.

A mutant Cas9 carrying a disruption in one of its catalytic domains hasbeen engineered to nick rather than cleave DNA, allowing forsingle-stranded breaks and preferential repair through HDR, potentiallyameliorating unwanted indel mutations from off-target DSBs.Additionally, a Cas9 mutant with both DNA-cleaving catalytic residuesmutated has been adapted to enable transcriptional regulation in E.coli, demonstrating the potential of functionalizing Cas9 for diverseapplications. Certain aspects of the invention relate to theconstruction and application of Cas9 for multiplexed editing of humancells.

Applicants have provided a human codon-optimized, nuclear localizationsequence-flanked Cas9 to facilitate eukaryotic gene editing. Applicantsdescribe considerations for designing the 20-nt guide sequence,protocols for rapid construction and functional validation of sgRNAs,and finally use of the Cas9 nuclease to mediate both NHEJ- and HDR-basedgenome modifications in human embryonic kidney (HEK-293FT) and humanstem cell (HUES9) lines. This protocol can likewise be applied to othercell types and organisms.

Target selection for sgRNA: There are two main considerations in theselection of the 20-nt guide sequence for gene targeting: 1) the targetsequence should precede the 5′-NGG PAM for S. pyogenes Cas9, and 2)guide sequences should be chosen to minimize off-target activity.Applicants provided an online Cas9 targeting design tool that takes aninput sequence of interest and identifies suitable target sites. Toexperimentally assess off-target modifications for each sgRNA,Applicants also provide computationally predicted off-target sites foreach intended target, ranked according to Applicants' quantitativespecificity analysis on the effects of base-pairing mismatch identity,position, and distribution.

The detailed information on computationally predicted off-target sitesis as follows:

Considerations for Off-target Cleavage Activities: Similar to othernucleases, Cas9 can cleave off-target DNA targets in the genome atreduced frequencies. The extent to which a given guide sequence exhibitoff-target activity depends on a combination of factors including enzymeconcentration, thermodynamics of the specific guide sequence employed,and the abundance of similar sequences in the target genome. For routineapplication of Cas9, it is important to consider ways to minimize thedegree of off-target cleavage and also to be able to detect the presenceof off-target cleavage.

Minimizing off-target activity: For application in cell lines,Applicants recommend following two steps to reduce the degree ofoff-target genome modification. First, using our online CRISPR targetselection tool, it is possible to computationally assess the likelihoodof a given guide sequence to have off-target sites. These analyses areperformed through an exhaustive search in the genome for off-targetsequences that are similar sequences as the guide sequence.Comprehensive experimental investigation of the effect of mismatchingbases between the sgRNA and its target DNA revealed that mismatchtolerance is 1) position dependent—the 8-14 bp on the 3′ end of theguide sequence are less tolerant of mismatches than the 5′ bases, 2)quantity dependent—in general more than 3 mismatches are not tolerated,3) guide sequence dependent—some guide sequences are less tolerant ofmismatches than others, and 4) concentration dependent—off-targetcleavage is highly sensitive to the amount of transfected DNA. TheApplicants' target site analysis web tool (available at the websitegenome-engineering.org/tools) integrates these criteria to providepredictions for likely off-target sites in the target genome. Second,Applicants recommend titrating the amount of Cas9 and sgRNA expressionplasmid to minimize off-target activity.

Detection of off-target activities: Using Applicants' CRISPR targetingweb tool, it is possible to generate a list of most likely off-targetsites as well as primers performing SURVEYOR or sequencing analysis ofthose sites. For isogenic clones generated using Cas9, Applicantsstrongly recommend sequencing these candidate off-target sites to checkfor any undesired mutations. It is worth noting that there may be offtarget modifications in sites that are not included in the predictedcandidate list and full genome sequence should be performed tocompletely verify the absence of off-target sites. Furthermore, inmultiplex assays where several DSBs are induced within the same genome,there may be low rates of translocation events and can be evaluatedusing a variety of techniques such as deep sequencing.

The online tool provides the sequences for all oligos and primersnecessary for 1) preparing the sgRNA constructs, 2) assaying targetmodification efficiency, and 3) assessing cleavage at potentialoff-target sites. It is worth noting that because the U6 RNA polymeraseIII promoter used to express the sgRNA prefers a guanine (G) nucleotideas the first base of its transcript, an extra G is appended at the 5′ ofthe sgRNA where the 20-nt guide sequence does not begin with G.

Approaches for sgRNA construction and delivery: Depending on the desiredapplication, sgRNAs may be delivered as either 1) PCR ampliconscontaining an expression cassette or 2) sgRNA-expressing plasmids.PCR-based sgRNA delivery appends the custom sgRNA sequence onto thereverse PCR primer used to amplify a U6 promoter template. The resultingamplicon may be co-transfected with a plasmid containing Cas9 (PX165).This method is optimal for rapid screening of multiple candidate sgRNAs,as cell transfections for functional testing can be performed mere hoursafter obtaining the sgRNA-encoding primers. Because this simple methodobviates the need for plasmid-based cloning and sequence verification,it is well suited for testing or co-transfecting a large number ofsgRNAs for generating large knockout libraries or other scale-sensitiveapplications. Note that the sgRNA-encoding primers are over 100-bp,compared to the ˜20-bp oligos required for plasmid-based sgRNA delivery.

Construction of an expression plasmid for sgRNA is also simple andrapid, involving a single cloning step with a pair of partiallycomplementary oligonucleotides. After annealing the oligo pairs, theresulting guide sequences may be inserted into a plasmid bearing bothCas9 and an invariant scaffold bearing the remainder of the sgRNAsequence (PX330). The transfection plasmids may also be modified toenable virus production for in vivo delivery.

In addition to PCR and plasmid-based delivery methods, both Cas9 andsgRNA can be introduced into cells as RNA.

Design of repair template: Traditionally, targeted DNA modificationshave required use of plasmid-based donor repair templates that containhomology arms flanking the site of alteration. The homology arms on eachside can vary in length, but are typically longer than 500 bp. Thismethod can be used to generate large modifications, including insertionof reporter genes such as fluorescent proteins or antibiotic resistancemarkers. The design and construction of targeting plasmids has beendescribed elsewhere.

More recently, single-stranded DNA oligonucleotides (ssODNs) have beenused in place of targeting plasmids for short modifications within adefined locus without cloning. To achieve high HDR efficiencies, ssODNscontain flanking sequences of at least 40 bp on each side that arehomologous to the target region, and can be oriented in either the senseor antisense direction relative to the target locus.

Functional Testing

SURVEYOR nuclease assay: Applicants detected indel mutations either bythe SURVEYOR nuclease assay (or PCR amplicon sequencing. Applicantsonline CRISPR target design tool provides recommended primers for bothapproaches. However, SURVEYOR or sequencing primers may also be designedmanually to amplify the region of interest from genomic DNA and to avoidnon-specific amplicons using NCBI Primer-BLAST. SURVEYOR primers shouldbe designed to amplify 300-400 bp (for a 600-800 bp total amplicon) oneither side of the Cas9 target for allowing clear visualization ofcleavage bands by gel electrophoresis. To prevent excessive primer dimerformation, SURVEYOR primers should be designed to be typically under25-nt long with melting temperatures of ˜60° C. Applicants recommendtesting each pair of candidate primers for specific PCR amplicons aswell as for the absence of non-specific cleavage during the SURVEYORnuclease digestion process.

Plasmid- or ssODN-mediated HDR: HDR can be detected viaPCR-amplification and sequencing of the modified region. PCR primers forthis purpose should anneal outside the region spanned by the homologyarms to avoid false detection of residual repair template (HDR Fwd andRev, FIG. 30). For ssODN-mediated HDR, SURVEYOR PCR primers can be used.

Detection of indels or HDR by sequencing: Applicants detected targetedgenome modifications by either Sanger or next-generation deep sequencing(NGS). For the former, genomic DNA from modified region can be amplifiedusing either SURVEYOR or HDR primers. Amplicons should be subcloned intoa plasmid such as pUC19 for transformation; individual colonies can besequenced to reveal clonal genotype.

Applicants designed next-generation sequencing (NGS) primers for shorteramplicons, typically in the 100-200 bp size range. For detecting NHEJmutations, it is important to design primers with at least 10-20 bpbetween the priming regions and the Cas9 target site to allow detectionof longer indels. Applicants provide guidelines for a two-step PCRmethod to attach barcoded adapters for multiplex deep sequencing.Applicants recommend the Illumina platform, due to its generally lowlevels of false positive indels. Off-target analysis (describedpreviously) can then be performed through read alignment programs suchas ClustalW, Geneious, or simple sequence analysis scripts.

Materials and Reagents

sgRNA Preparation:

UltraPure DNaseRNase-free distilled water (Life Technologies, cat. no.10977-023) Herculase II fusion polymerase (Agilent Technologies, cat.no. 600679) CRITICAL. Standard Taq polymerase, which lacks 3′-5′exonuclease proofreading activity, has lower fidelity and can lead toamplification errors. Herculase II is a high-fidelity polymerase(equivalent fidelity to Pfu) that produces high yields of PCR productwith minimal optimization.

Other high-fidelity polymerases may be substituted.

Herculase II reaction buffer (5×; Agilent Technologies, included withpolymerase)

dNTP solution mix (25 mM each; Enzymatics, cat. no. N205L)

MgCl2 (25 mM; ThermoScientific, cat. no. R0971)

QIAquick gel extraction kit (Qiagen, cat. no. 28704)

QIAprep spin miniprep kit (Qiagen, cat. no. 27106)

UltraPure TBE buffer (10×; Life Technologies, cat. no. 15581-028)

SeaKem LE agarose (Lonza, cat. no. 50004)

SYBR Safe DNA stain (10,000×; Life Technologies, cat. no. 533102)

1-kb Plus DNA ladder (Life Technologies, cat. no. 10787-018)

TrackIt CyanOrange loading buffer (Life Technologies, cat. no.10482-028)

FastDigest Bbsl (Bpil) (Fermentas/ThermoScientific, cat. no. FD1014)

Fermentas Tango Buffer (Fermentas/ThermoScientific, cat. no. BY5)

DL-dithiothreitol (DTT; Fermentas/ThermoScientific, cat. no. R0862)

T7 DNA ligase (Enzymatics, cat. no. L602L)

Critical:Do not substitute the more commonly used T4 ligase. T7 ligasehas 1,000-fold higher activity on the sticky ends than on the blunt endsand higher overall activity than commercially available concentrated T4ligases.

T7 2X Rapid Ligation Buffer (included with T7 DNA ligase, Enzymatics,cat. no. L602L)

T4 Polynucleotide Kinase (New England Biolabs, cat. no M0201S)

T4 DNA Ligase Reaction Buffer (10×; New England Biolabs, cat. no B0202S)

Adenosine 5′-triphosphate (10 mM; New England Biolabs, cat. no. P0756S)

PlasmidSafe ATP-dependent DNase (Epicentre, cat. no. E3101K)

One Shot Stb13 chemically competent Escherichia coli (E. coli) (LifeTechnologies, cat. no. C7373-03)

SOC medium (New England Biolabs, cat. no. B9020S)

LB medium (Sigma, cat. no. L3022)

LB agar medium (Sigma, cat. no. L2897)

Ampicillin, sterile filtered (100 mg ml-1; Sigma, cat. no. A5354)

Mammalian Cell Culture:

HEK293FT cells (Life Technologies, cat. no. R700-07)

Dulbecco's minimum Eagle's medium (DMEM, 1×, high glucose; LifeTechnologies, cat. no. 10313-039)

Dulbecco's minimum Eagle's medium (DMEM, 1×, high glucose, no phenolred; Life Technologies, cat. no. 31053-028)

Dulbecco's phosphate-buffered saline (DPBS, 1×; Life Technologies, cat.no. 14190-250)

Fetal bovine serum, qualified and heat inactivated (Life Technologies,cat. no. 10438-034)

Opti-MEM I reduced-serum medium (FBS; Life Technologies, cat. no.11058-021)

Penicillin-streptomycin (100×; Life Technologies, cat. no. 15140-163)

TrypLE™ Express (1×, no Phenol Red; Life Technologies, cat. no.12604-013)

Lipofectamine 2000 transfection reagent (Life Technologies, cat. no.11668027)

Amaxa SF Cell Line 4D-Nucleofector® X Kit S (32 RCT; Lonza, cat. noV4XC-2032) HUES 9 cell line (HARVARD STEM CELL SCIENCE)

Geltrex LDEV-Free Reduced Growth Factor Basement Membrane Matrix (LifeTechnologies, cat. no. A1413201)

mTeSR1 medium (Stemcell Technologies, cat. no. 05850)

Accutase cell detachment solution (Stemcell Technologies, cat. no.07920)

ROCK Inhibitor (Y-27632; Millipore, cat. no. SCM075)

Amaxa P3 Primary Cell 4D-Nucleofector® X Kit S (32 RCT; Lonza cat. no.V4XP-3032)

Genotyping Analysis:

QuickExtract DNA extraction solution (Epicentre, cat. no. QE09050)

PCR primers for SURVEYOR, RFLP analysis, or sequencing (see Primertable)

Herculase II fusion polymerase (Agilent Technologies, cat. no. 600679)

CRITICAL. As Surveyor assay is sensitive to single-base mismatches, itis particularly important to use a high-fidelity polymerase. Otherhigh-fidelity polymerases may be substituted. Herculase II reactionbuffer (5×; Agilent Technologies, included with polymerase)dNTP solution mix (25 mM each; Enzymatics, cat. no. N205L)QIAquick gel extraction kit (Qiagen, cat. no. 28704)Taq Buffer (10×; Genscript, cat. no. B0005)SURVEYOR mutation detection kit for standard gel electrophoresis(Transgenomic, cat. no. 706025)UltraPure TBE buffer (10×; Life Technologies, cat. no. 15581-028)SeaKem LE agarose (Lonza, cat. no. 50004)4-20% TBE Gels 1.0 mm, 15 Well (Life Technologies, cat. no. EC62255BOX)Novex® Hi-Density TBE Sample Buffer (5×; Life Technologies, cat. no.LC6678)SYBR Gold Nucleic Acid Gel Stain (10,000×; Life Technologies, cat. no.S-11494)1-kb Plus DNA ladder (Life Technologies, cat. no. 10787-018)TrackIt CyanOrange loading buffer (Life Technologies, cat. no.10482-028)FastDigest HindIII (Fermentas/ThermoScientific, cat. no. FD0504)

Equipment

Filtered sterile pipette tips (Corning)

Standard 1.5 ml microcentrifuge tubes (Eppendorf, cat. no. 0030 125.150)

Axygen 96-well PCR plates (VWR, cat. no. PCR-96M2-HSC)

Axygen 8-Strip PCR tubes (Fischer Scientific, cat. no. 14-222-250)

Falcon tubes, polypropylene, 15 ml (BD Falcon, cat. no. 352097) Falcontubes, polypropylene, 50 ml (BD Falcon, cat. no. 352070)

Round-bottom Tube with cell strainer cap, 5 ml (BD Falcon, cat. no.352235)

Petri dishes (60 mm×15 mm; BD Biosciences, cat. no. 351007)

Tissue culture plate (24 well; BD Falcon, cat. no. 353047)

Tissue culture plate (96 well, flat bottom; BD Falcon, cat. no. 353075)

Tissue culture dish (100 mm; BD Falcon, 353003)

96-well thermocycler with programmable temperature steppingfunctionality (Applied Biosystems Veriti, cat. no. 4375786).

Desktop microcentrifuges 5424, 5804 (Eppendorf)

Gel electrophoresis system (PowerPac basic power supply, Bio-Rad, cat.no. 164-5050, and Sub-Cell GT System gel tray, Bio-Rad, cat. no.170-4401)

Novex XCell SureLock Mini-Cell (Life Technologies, cat. no. EI0001)

Digital gel imaging system (GelDoc EZ, Bio-Rad, cat. no. 170-8270, andblue sample tray, Bio-Rad, cat. no. 170-8273)

Blue light transilluminator and orange filter goggles (SafeImager 2.0;Invitrogen, cat. no. G6600) Gel quantification software (Bio-Rad,ImageLab, included with GelDoc EZ,or open-source ImageJ from theNational Institutes of Health, available at the websitersbweb.nih.gov/ij/) UV spectrophotometer (NanoDrop 2000c, ThermoScientific)

Reagent Setup

Tris-borate EDTA (TBE) electrophoresis solution Dilute TBE buffer indistilled water to 1× working solution for casting agarose gels and foruse as a buffer for gel electrophoresis. Buffer may be stored at roomtemperature (18-22° C.) for at least 1 year.

-   -   ATP, 10 mM Divide 10 mM ATP into 50-μl aliquots and store at        −20° C. for up to 1 year; avoid repeated freeze-thaw cycles.    -   DTT, 10 mM Prepare 10 mM DTT solution in distilled water and        store in 20-μl aliquots at −70° C. for up to 2 years; for each        reaction, use a new aliquot, as DTT is easily oxidized.    -   D10 culture medium For culture of HEK293FT cells, prepare D10        culture medium by supplementing DMEM with 1× GlutaMAX and 10%        (vol/vol) fetal bovine serum. As indicated in the protocol, this        medium can also be supplemented with 1× penicillin-streptomycin.        D10 medium can be made in advance and stored at 4° C. for up to        1 month.    -   mTeSR1 culture medium For culture of human embryonic stem cells,        prepare mTeSR1 medium by supplementing the 5× supplement        (included with mTeSR1 basal medium), and 100 ug/ml Normocin.

Procedure

Design of Targeting Components and Use of the Online Tool•Timing 1 d

Input target genomic DNA sequence. Applicants provide an online Cas9targeting design tool that takes an input sequence of interest,identifies and ranks suitable target sites, and computationally predictsoff-target sites for each intended target. Alternatively, one canmanually select guide sequence by identifying the 20-bp sequencedirectly upstream of any 5′-NGG.

Order necessary oligos and primers as specified by the online tool. Ifthe site is chosen manually, the oligos and primers should be designed.

Preparation of sgRNA Expression Construct

To generate the sgRNA expression construct, either the PCR- orplasmid-based protocol can be used.

(A) via PCR Amplification•Timing 2 h

(i) Applicants prepare diluted U6 PCR template. Applicants recommendusing PX330 as a PCR template, but any U6-containing plasmid maylikewise be used as the PCR template. Applicants diluted template withddH₂O to a concentration of 10 ng/ul. Note that if a plasmid or cassettealready containing an U6-driven sgRNA is used as a template, a gelextraction needs to be performed to ensure that the product containsonly the intended sgRNA and no trace sgRNA carryover from template.

(ii) Applicants prepared diluted PCR oligos. U6-Fwd and U6-sgRNA-Revprimers are diluted to a final concentration of 10 uM in ddH₂O (add 10ul of 100 uM primer to 90 ul ddH₂O).

(iii) U6-sgRNA PCR reaction. Applicants set up the following reactionfor each U6-sgRNA-Rev primer and mastermix as needed:

Component: Amount (ul) Final concentration Herculase II PCR buffer, 5X10 1X dNTP, 100 mM (25 mM each) 0.5   1 mM U6 template (PX330) 1 0.2ng/ul U6-Fwd primer 1 0.2 uM U6-sgRNA-Rev primer (variable) 1 0.2 uMHerculase II Fusion polymerase 0.5 Distilled water 36 Total 50

(iv) Applicants performed PCR reaction on the reactions from step (iii)using the following cycling conditions:

Cycle number Denature Anneal Extend  1 95° C., 2 m 2-31 95° C., 20 s 60°C., 20 s 72° C., 20 s 32 72° C., 3 m

(v) After the reaction is completed, Applicants ran the product on a gelto verify successful, single-band amplification. Cast a 2% (wt/vol)agarose gel in 1×TBE buffer with 1× SYBR Safe dye. Run 5 ul of the PCRproduct in the gel at 15 V cm-1 for 20-30 min. Successful ampliconsshould yield one single 370-bp product and the template should beinvisible. It should not be necessary to gel extract the PCR amplicon.

(vi) Applicants purified the PCR product using the QIAquick PCRpurification kit according to the manufacturer's directions. Elute theDNA in 35 ul of Buffer EB or water. Purified PCR products may be storedat 4° C. or −20° C.

(B) Cloning sgRNA into Cas9-Containing Bicistronic ExpressionVector•Timing 3 d

(i) Prepare the sgRNA oligo inserts. Applicants resuspended the top andbottom strands of oligos for each sgRNA design to a final concentrationof 100 uM. Phosphorylate and anneal the oligo as follows:

Oligo 1 (100 uM) 1 ul Oligo 2 (100 uM) 1 ul T4 Ligation Buffer, 10X 1 ulT4 PNK 1 ul ddH₂O 6 ul Total 10 ul 

(ii) Anneal in a thermocycler using the following parameters:

37° C. for 30 m

95° C. for 5 m

Ramp down to 25° C. at 5° C. per m

(iii) Applicants diluted phosphorylated and annealed oligos 1:200 by addlul of oligo to 199 ul room temperature ddH₂O.

(iv) Clone sgRNA oligo into PX330. Applicants set up Golden Gatereaction for each sgRNA. Applicants recommend also setting up ano-insert, PX330 only negative control.

PX330 (100 ng) x ul Diluted oligo duplex from step (iii) 2 ul TangoBuffer, 10X 2 ul DTT, 10 mM 1 ul ATP, 10 mM 1 ul FastDigest BbsI 1 ul T7Ligase 0.5 ul   ddH₂O x ul Total 20 ul 

(v) Incubate the Golden Gate reaction for a total of 1 h:

Cycle number Condition 1-6 37° C. for 5 m, 21° C. for 5 m

(vi) Applicants treated Golden Gate reaction with PlasmidSafeexonuclease to digest any residual linearized DNA. This step is optionalbut highly recommended.

Golden Gate reaction from step 4  11 ul 10X PlasmidSafe Buffer 1.5 ulATP, 10 mM 1.5 ul PlasmidSafe exonuclease   1 ul Total  15 ul

(vii) Applicants incubated the PlasmidSafe reaction at 37° C. for 30min, followed by inactivation at 70° C. for 30 min. Pause point: aftercompletion, the reaction may be frozen and continued later. The circularDNA should be stable for at least 1 week.

(viii) Transformation. Applicants transformed the PlasmidSafe-treatedplasmid into a competent E. coli strain, according to the protocolsupplied with the cells. Applicants recommend Stb13 for quicktransformation. Briefly, Applicants added 5 ul of the product from step(vii) into 20 ul of ice-cold chemically competent Stb13 cells. This isthen incubated on ice for 10 m, heat shocked at 42° C. for 30 s,returned immediately to ice for 2 m, 100 ul of SOC medium is added, andthis is plated onto an LB plate containing 100 ug/ml ampicillin withincubation overnight at 37° C.

(ix) Day 2: Applicants inspected plates for colony growth. Typically,there are no colonies on the negative control plates (ligation ofBbsl-digested PX330 only, no annealed sgRNA oligo), and tens to hundredsof colonies on the PX330-sgRNA cloning plates.

(x) From each plate, Applicants picked 2-3 colonies to check correctinsertion of sgRNA. Applicants used a sterile pipette tip to inoculate asingle colony into a 3 ml culture of LB medium with 100 ug/mlampicillin. Incubate and shake at 37° C. overnight.

(xi) Day 3: Applicants isolated plasmid DNA from overnight culturesusing a QiAprep Spin miniprep kit according to the manufacturer'sinstructions.

(xii) Sequence validate CRISPR plasmid. Applicants verified the sequenceof each colony by sequencing from the U6 promoter using the U6-Fwdprimer. Optional: sequence the Cas9 gene using primers listed in thefollowing Primer table.

Primer Sequence (5′ to 3′) Purpose U6-ForGAGGGCCTATTTCCCATGATTCC (SEQ ID NO: 182) Amplify U6- sgRNA U6-RevAAAAAAAGCACCGACTCGGTGCCACTTTTTCAAGTTGA Amplify U6-TAACGGACTAGCCTTATTTTAACTTGCTATTTCTAG sgRNA; N isCTCTAAAACNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNCCGGTGTTTC reverseGTCCTTTCCACAAG (SEQ ID NO: 183) complement of target sgRNA-CACCGNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNN (SEQ ID NO: 184) Clone sgRNA top into PX330sgRNA- AAACNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNC (SEQ ID NO: 185) Clone sgRNA bottominto PX330 U6- AAAAAAAGCACCGACTCGGTGCCACTTTTTCAAGTTGA Amplify U6- EMX1-TAACGGACTAGCCTTATTTTAACTTGCTATTTCTAG EMX1 sgRNA RevCTCTAAAACCCCTAGTCATTGGAGGTGACCGGTGTTTCG TCCTTTCCACAAG (SEQ ID NO: 186)EMX1-top CACCGTCACCTCCAATGACTAGGG (SEQ ID NO: 187) Clone EMX1 sgRNA intoPX330 EMX1- AAACCCCTAGTCATTGGAGGTGAC (SEQ ID NO: 188) Clone EMX1 bottomsgRNA into PX330 ssODN- CAGAAGAAGAAGGGCTCCCATCACATCAACCGGTGGCG EMX1 HDRsense CATTGCCACGAAGCAGGCCAATGGGGAGGACATC (sense;GATGTCACCTCCAATGACAAGCTTGCTAGCGGTGGGCA insertionACCACAAACCCACGAGGGCAGAGTGCTGCTTGCTG underlined)CTGGCCAGGCCCCTGCGTGGGCCCAAGCTGGACTCTGG CCACTCCCT (SEQ ID NO: 189) ssODN-AGGGAGTGGCCAGAGTCCAGCTTGGGCCCACGCAGGGG EMX1 HDR antisenseCCTGGCCAGCAGCAAGCAGCACTCTGCCCTCGTG (antisense;GGTTTGTGGTTGCCCACCGCTAGCAAGCTTGTCATTGGA insertionGGTGACATCGATGTCCTCCCCATTGGCCTGCTTCG underlined)TGGCAATGCGCCACCGGTTGATGTGATGGGAGCCCTTC TTCTTCTG (SEQ ID NO: 190) EMX1-CCATCCCCTTCTGTGAATGT (SEQ ID NO: 191) EMX1 SURV-F SURVEYOR assay PCR,sequencing EMX1- GGAGATTGGAGACACGGAGA (SEQ ID NO: 192) EMX1 SURV-RSURVEYOR assay PCR, sequencing EMX1-GGCTCCCTGGGTTCAAAGTA (SEQ ID NO: 193) EMX1 RFLP HDR-F analysis PCR,sequencing EMX1- AGAGGGGTCTGGATGTCGTAA (SEQ ID NO: 194) EMX1 RFLP HDR-Ranalysis PCR, sequencing pUC19-FCGCCAGGGTTTTCCCAGTCACGAC (SEQ ID NO: 195) pUC19 multiple cloning site Fprimer, for Sanger sequencing

Applicants referenced the sequencing results against the PX330 cloningvector sequence to check that the 20 bp guide sequence was insertedbetween the U6 promoter and the remainder of the sgRNA scaffold. Detailsand sequence of the PX330 map in GenBank vector map format (*.gb file)can be found at the website crispr.genome-engineering.org.

(Optional) Design of ssODN Template•Timing 3 d Planning Ahead

Design and Order ssODN.

Either the sense or antisense ssODN can be purchased directly fromsupplier. Applicants recommend designing homology arms of at least 40 bpon either side and 90 bp for optimal HDR efficiency. In Applicants'experience, antisense oligos have slightly higher modificationefficiencies.

Applicants resuspended and diluted ssODN ultramers to a finalconcentration of 10 uM. Do not combine or anneal the sense and antisensessODNs. Store at −20° C.

Note for HDR applications, Applicants recommend cloning sgRNA into thePX330 plasmid.

Functional Validation of sgRNAs: Cell Culture and Transfections•Timing3-4 d

The CRISPR-Cas system has been used in a number of mammalian cell lines.Conditions may vary for each cell line. The protocols below detailstransfection conditions for HEK239FT cells. Note for ssODN-mediated HDRtransfections, the Amaxa SF Cell Line Nucleofector Kit is used foroptimal delivery of ssODNs. This is described in the next section.

HEK293FT maintenance. Cells are maintained according to themanufacturer's recommendations. Briefly, Applicants cultured cells inD10 medium (GlutaMax DMEM supplemented with 10% Fetal Bovine Serum), at37° C. and 5% CO2.

To passage, Applicants removed medium and rinsed once by gently addingDPBS to side of vessel, so as not to dislodge cells. Applicants added 2ml of TrypLE to a T75 flask and incubated for 5 m at 37° C. 10 ml ofwarm D10 medium is added to inactivate and transferred to a 50 ml Falcontube. Applicants dissociated cells by triturating gently, and re-seedednew flasks as necessary. Applicants typically passage cells every 2-3 dat a split ratio of 1:4 or 1:8, never allowing cells to reach more than70% confluency. Cell lines are restarted upon reaching passage number15.

Prepare Cells for Transfection.

Applicants plated well-dissociated cells onto 24-well plates in D10medium without antibiotics 16-24 h before transfection at a seedingdensity of 1.3×10⁵ cells per well and a seeding volume of 500 ul. Scaleup or down according to the manufacturer's manual as needed. It issuggested to not plate more cells than recommended density as doing somay reduce transfection efficiency.

On the day of transfection, cells are optimal at 70-90% confluency.Cells may be transfected with Lipofectamine 2000 or Amaxa SF Cell LineNucleofector Kit according to the manufacturers' protocols.

(A) For sgRNAs cloned into PX330, Applicants transfected 500 ng ofsequence-verified CRISPR plasmid; if transfecting more than one plasmid,mix at equimolar ratio and no more than 500 ng total.

(B) For sgRNA amplified by PCR, Applicants mixed the following:

PX165 (Cas9 only) 200 ng sgRNA amplicon (each)  40 ng pUC19 fill uptotal DNA to 500 ng

Applicants recommend transfecting in technical triplicates for reliablequantification and including transfection controls (e.g. GFP plasmid) tomonitor transfection efficiency. In addition, PX330 cloning plasmidand/or sgRNA amplicon may be transfected alone as a negative control fordownstream functional assays.

Applicants added Lipofectamine complex to cells gently as HEK293FT cellsmay detach easily from plate easily and result in lower transfectionefficiency.

Applicants checked cells 24 h after transfection for efficiency byestimating the fraction of fluorescent cells in the control (e.g., GFP)transfection using a fluorescence microscope. Typically cells are morethan 70% transfected.

Applicants supplemented the culture medium with an additional 500 ul ofwarm D10 medium. Add D10 very slowly to the side of the well and do notuse cold medium, as cells can detach easily.

Cells are incubated for a total of 48-72 h post-transfection beforeharvested for indel analysis. Indel efficiency does not increasenoticeably after 48 h.

(Optional) Co-transfection of CRISPR plasmids and ssODNs or targetingplasmids for HR•Timing 3-4 d

Linearize Targeting Plasmid.

Targeting vector is linearized if possible by cutting once at arestriction site in the vector backbone near one of the homology arms orat the distal end of either homology arm.

Applicants ran a small amount of the linearized plasmid alongside uncutplasmid on a 0.8-1% agarose gel to check successful linearization.Linearized plasmid should run above the supercoiled plasmid.

Applicants purified linearized plasmid with the QIAQuick PCRPurification kit.

Prepare cells for transfection. Applicants cultured HEK293FT in T75 orT225 flasks. Sufficient cell count before day of transfection is plannedfor. For the Amaxa strip-cuvette format, 2×10⁶ cells are used pertransfection.

Prepare plates for transfection. Applicants added 1 ml of warm D10medium into each well of a 12 well plate. Plates are placed into theincubator to keep medium warm.

Nucleofection. Applicants transfected HEK293FT cells according to theAmaxa SF Cell Line Nucleofector 4D Kit manufacturer's instructions,adapted in the steps below.

a. For ssODN and CRISPR cotransfection, pre-mix the following DNA in PCRtubes:

pCRISPR plasmid (Cas9 + sgRNA) 500 ng ssODN template (10 uM) 1 ul

b. For HDR targeting plasmid and CRISPR cotransfection, pre-mix thefollowing DNA in PCR tubes:

CRISPR plasmid (Cas9 + sgRNA) 500 ng Linearized targeting plasmid 500 ng

For transfection controls, see previous section. In addition, Applicantsrecommend transfecting ssODN or targeting plasmid alone as a negativecontrol.

Dissociate to single cells. Applicants removed medium and rinsed oncegently with DPBS, taking care not to dislodge cells. 2 ml of TrypLE isadded to a T75 flask and incubated for 5 m at 37° C. 10 ml of warm D10medium is added to inactivate and triturated gently in a 50 ml Falcontube. It is recommended that cells are triturated gently and dissociatedto single cells. Large clumps will reduce transfection efficiency.Applicants took a 10 ul aliquot from the suspension and diluted into 90ul of D10 medium for counting. Applicants counted cells and calculatedthe number of cells and volume of suspension needed for transfection.Applicants typically transfected 2×10⁵ cells per condition using theAmaxa Nucleocuvette strips, and recommend calculating for 20% more cellsthan required to adjust for volume loss in subsequent pipetting steps.The volume needed is transferred into a new Falcon tube.

Applicants spun down the new tube at 200×g for 5 m.

Applicants prepared the transfection solution by mixing the SF solutionand 51 supplement as recommended by Amaxa. For Amaxa strip-cuvettes, atotal of 20 ul of supplemented SF solution is needed per transfection.Likewise, Applicants recommend calculating for 20% more volume thanrequired.

Applicants removed medium completely from pelleted cells from step 23and gently resuspended in appropriate volume (20 ul per 2×10⁵ cells) ofS1-supplemented SF solution. Do not leave cells in SF solution forextended period of time.

20 ul of resuspended cells is pipetted into each DNA pre-mix from step20. Pipette gently to mix and transfer to Nucleocuvette strip chamber.This is repeated for each transfection condition.

Electroporate cells using the Nucleofector 4D program recommended byAmaxa, CM-130.

Applicants gently and slowly pipetted 100 ul of warm D10 medium intoeach Nucleocuvette strip chamber, and transferred all volume into thepre-warmed plate from step 19. CRITICAL. Cells are very fragile at thisstage and harsh pipetting can cause cell death. Incubate for 24 h. Atthis point, transfection efficiency can be estimated from fraction offluorescent cells in positive transfection control. Nucleofectiontypically results in greater than 70-80% transfection efficiency.Applicants slowly added 1 ml warm D10 medium to each well withoutdislodging the cells. Incubate cells for a total of 72 h.

Human Embryonic Stem Cell (HUES 9) Culture and Transfection•Timing 3-4 d

Maintaining hESC (HUES9) line. Applicants routinely maintain HUES9 cellline in feeder-free conditions with mTesR1 medium. Applicants preparedmTeSR1 medium by adding the 5× supplement included with basal medium and100 ug/ml Normocin. Applicants prepared a 10 ml aliquot of mTeSR1 mediumsupplemented further with 10 uM Rock Inhibitor. Coat tissue cultureplate. Dilute cold GelTrex 1:100 in cold DMEM and coat the entiresurface of a 100 mm tissue culture plate.

Place plate in incubator for at least 30 m at 37° C. Thaw out a vial ofcells at 37° C. in a 15 ml Falcon tube, add 5 ml of mTeSR1 medium, andpellet at 200×g for 5 m. Aspirate off GelTrex coating and seed ˜1×106cells with 10 ml mTeSR1 medium containing Rock Inhibitor. Change tonormal mTeSR1 medium 24 h after transfection and re-feed daily.Passaging cells. Re-feed cells with fresh mTeSR1 medium daily andpassage before reaching 70% confluency. Aspirate off mTeSR1 medium andwash cells once with DPBS. Dissociate cells by adding 2 ml Accutase andincubating at 37° C. for 3-5 m. Add 10 ml mTeSR1 medium to detachedcells, transfer to 15 ml Falcon tube and resuspend gently. Re-plate ontoGelTrex-coated plates in mTeSR1 medium with 10 uM Rock Inhibitor. Changeto normal mTeSR1 medium 24 h after plating.

Transfection. Applicants recommend culturing cells for at least 1 weekpost-thaw before transfecting using the Amaxa P3 Primary Cell 4-DNucleofector Kit (Lonza). Re-feed log-phase growing cells with freshmedium 2 h before transfection. Dissociate to single cells or smallclusters of no more than 10 cells with accutase and gentle resuspension.Count the number of cells needed for nucleofection and spin down at200×g for 5 m. Remove medium completely and resuspend in recommendedvolume of 51-supplemented P3 nucleofection solution. Gently plateelectroporated cells into coated plates in presence of 1× RockInhibitor.

Check transfection success and re-feed daily with regular mTeSR1 mediumbeginning 24 h after nucleofection. Typically, Applicants observegreater than 70% transfection efficiency with Amaxa Nucleofection.Harvest DNA. 48-72 h post transfection, dissociate cells using accutaseand inactivate by adding 5× volume of mTeSR1. Spin cells down at 200×gfor 5 m. Pelleted cells can be directed processed for DNA extractionwith QuickExtract solution. It is recommended to not mechanicallydissociate cells without accutase. It is recommended to not spin cellsdown without inactivating accutase or above the recommended speed; doingso may cause cells to lyse.

Isolation of clonal cell lines by FACS. Timing•2-3 h hands-on; 2-3 weeksexpansion

Clonal isolation may be performed 24 h post-transfection by FACS or byserial dilution.

Prepare FACS Buffer.

Cells that do not need sorting using colored fluorescence may be sortedin regular D10 medium supplemented with 1× penicillin/streptinomycin. Ifcolored fluorescence sorting is also required, a phenol-free DMEM orDPBS is substituted for normal DMEM. Supplement with 1×penicillin/streptinomycin and filter through a 0.22 um Steriflip filter.

Prepare 96 Well Plates.

Applicants added 100 ul of D10 media supplemented with 1×penicillin/streptinomycin per well and prepared the number of plates asneeded for the desired number of clones.

Prepare Cells for FACS.

Applicants dissociated cells by aspirating the medium completely andadding 100 ul TrypLE per well of a 24-well plate. Incubate for 5 m andadd 400 ul warm D10 media.

Resuspended cells are transferred into a 15 ml Falcon tube and gentlytriturated 20 times. Recommended to check under the microscope to ensuredissociation to single cells.

Spin down cells at 200×g for 5 minutes.

Applicants aspirated the media, and resuspended the cells in 200 ul ofFACS media.

Cells are filtered through a 35 um mesh filter into labeled FACS tubes.Applicants recommend using the BD Falcon 12×75 mm Tube with CellStrainer cap. Place cells on ice until sorting.

Applicants sorted single cells into 96-well plates prepared from step55. Applicants recommend that in one single designated well on eachplate, sort 100 cells as a positive control.

NOTE. The remainder of the cells may be kept and used for genotyping atthe population level to gauge overall modification efficiency.

Applicants returned cells into the incubator and allowed them to expandfor 2-3 weeks. 100 ul of warm D10 medium is added 5 d post sorting.Change 100 ul of medium every 3-5 d as necessary.

Colonies are inspected for “clonal” appearance 1 week post sorting:rounded colonies radiating from a central point. Mark off wells that areempty or may have been seeded with doublets or multiplets.

When cells are more than 60% confluent, Applicants prepared a set ofreplica plates for passaging. 100 ul of D10 medium is added to each wellin the replica plates. Applicants dissociated cells directly bypipetting up and down vigorously 20 times. 20% of the resuspended volumewas plated into the prepared replica plates to keep the clonal lines.Change the medium every 2-3 d thereafter and passage accordingly.

Use the remainder 80% of cells for DNA isolation and genotyping.

Optional: Isolation of clonal cell lines by dilution. Timing•2-3 hhands-on; 2-3 weeks expansion

Applicants dissociated cells from 24-well plates as described above.Make sure to dissociate to single cells. A cell strainer can be used toprevent clumping of cells.

The number of cells are counted in each condition. Serially dilute eachcondition in D10 medium to a final concentration of 0.5 cells per 100ul. For each 96 well plate, Applicants recommend diluting to a finalcount of 60 cells in 12 ml of D10. Accurate count of cell number isrecommended for appropriate clonal dilution. Cells may be recounted atan intermediate serial dilution stage to ensure accuracy.

Multichannel pipette was used to pipette 100 ul of diluted cells to eachwell of a 96 well plate.

NOTE. The remainder of the cells may be kept and used for genotyping atthe population level to gauge overall modification efficiency.

Applicants inspected colonies for “clonal” appearance ˜1 week postplating: rounded colonies radiating from a central point. Mark off wellsthat may have seeded with doublets or multiplets.

Applicants returned cells to the incubator and allowed them to expandfor 2-3 weeks. Re-feed cells as needed as detailed in previous section.

SURVEYOR Assay for CRISPR Cleavage Efficiency. Timing•5-6 h

Before assaying cleavage efficiency of transfected cells, Applicantsrecommend testing each new SURVEYOR primer on negative (untransfected)control samples through the step of SURVEYOR nuclease digestion usingthe protocol described below. Occasionally, even single-band cleanSURVEYOR PCR products can yield non-specific SURVEYOR nuclease cleavagebands and potentially interfere with accurate indel analysis.

Harvest cells for DNA. Dissociate cells and spin down at 200×g for 5 m.NOTE. Replica plate at this stage as needed to keep transfected celllines.

Aspirate the supernatant completely.

Applicants used QuickExtract DNA extraction solution according to themanufacturer's instructions. Applicants typically used 50 ul of thesolution for each well of a 24 well plate and 10 ul for a 96 well plate.

Applicants normalized extracted DNA to a final concentration of 100-200ng/ul with ddH2O. Pause point: Extracted DNA may be stored at −20° C.for several months.

Set up the SURVEYOR PCR.

Master mix the following using SURVEYOR primers provided by Applicantsonline/computer algorithm tool:

Final Component: Amount (ul) concentration Herculase II PCR buffer, 5X10 1X dNTP, 100 mM (25 mM each) 1 1 mM SURVEYOR Fwd primer (10 uM) 1 0.2uM SURVEYOR Rev primer (10 uM) 1 0.2 uM Herculase II Fusion polymerase 1MgCl₂ (25 mM) 2 1 mM Distilled water 33 Total 49 (for each reaction)

Applicants added 100-200 ng of normalized genomic DNA template from step74 for each reaction.

PCR reaction was performed using the following cycling conditions, forno more than 30 amplification cycles:

Cycle number Denature Anneal Extend  1 95° C., 2 min 2-31 95° C., 20 s60° C., 20 s 72° C., 30 s 32 72° C., 3 min

Applicants ran 2-5 ul of PCR product on a 1% gel to check forsingle-band product. Although these PCR conditions are designed to workwith most pairs of SURVEYOR primers, some primers may need additionaloptimization by adjusting the template concentration, MgCl₂concentration, and/or the annealing temperature.

Applicants purified the PCR reactions using the QIAQuick PCRpurification kit and normalized eluant to 20 ng/ul. Pause point:Purified PCR product may be stored at −20° C.

DNA Heteroduplex Formation.

The annealing reaction was set up as follows:

Taq PCR buffer, 10X  2 ul Normalized DNA (20 ng/ul) 18 ul Total volume20 ul

81| Anneal the reaction using the following conditions:

Cycle number Condition 1 95° C., 10 mn 2 95° C.-85° C., −2° C./s 3 85°C., 1 min 4 85° C.-75° C., −0.3° C./s 5 75° C., 1 min 6 75° C.-65° C.,−0.3° C./s 7 65° C., 1 min 8 65° C.-55° C., −0.3° C./s 9 55° C., 1 min10 55° C.-45° C., −0.3° C./s 11 45° C., 1 min 12 45° C.-35° C., −0.3°C./s 13 35° C., 1 min 14 35° C.-25° C., −0.3° C./s 15 25° C., 1 min

SURVEYOR Nuclease S Digestion.

Applicants prepared master-mix and added the following components on iceto annealed heteroduplexes from step 81 for a total final volume of 25ul:

Final Component Amount (ul) Concentration MgCl₂ solution, 0.15M 2.5 15mM ddH₂O 0.5 SURVEYOR nuclease S 1 1X SURVEYOR enhancer S 1 1X Total 5

Vortex well and spin down. Incubate the reaction at 42° C. for 1 h.

Optional: 2 ul of the Stop Solution from the SURVEYOR kit may be added.Pause point. The digested product may be stored at −20° C. for analysisat a later time.

Visualize the SURVEYOR Reaction.

SURVEYOR nuclease digestion products may be visualized on a 2% agarosegel. For better resolution, products may be run on a 4-20% gradientPolyacrylamide TBE gel. Applicants loaded 10 ul of product with therecommended loading buffer and ran the gel according to manufacturer'sinstructions. Typically, Applicants run until the bromophenol blue dyehas migrated to the bottom of the gel. Include DNA ladder and negativecontrols on the same gel.

Applicants stained the gel with 1×SYBR Gold dye diluted in TBE. The gelwas gently rocked for 15 m.

Applicants imaged the gel using a quantitative imaging system withoutoverexposing the bands. The negative controls should have only one bandcorresponding to the size of the PCR product, but may have occasionallynon-specific cleavage bands of other sizes. These will not interferewith analysis if they are different in size from target cleavage bands.The sum of target cleavage band sizes, provided by Applicantsonline/computer algorithm tool, should be equal to the size of the PCRproduct.

Estimate the Cleavage Intensity.

Applicants quantified the integrated intensity of each band using ImageJor other gel quantification software.

For each lane, Applicants calculated the fraction of the PCR productcleaved (f_(cut)) using the following formula: f_(cut)=(b+c)/(a+b+c),where a is the integrated intensity of the undigested PCR product and band c are the integrated intensities of each cleavage product. Cleavageefficiency may be estimated using the following formula, based on thebinomial probability distribution of duplex formation:indel (%)=100×√{square root over ((1−1−f _(out)))})

Sanger Sequencing for Assessing CRISPR Cleavage Efficiency. Timing•3 d

Initial steps are identical to Steps 71-79 of the SURVEYOR assay. Note:SURVEYOR primers may be used for Sanger sequencing if appropriaterestriction sites are appended to the Forward and Reverse primers. Forcloning into the recommended pUC19 backbone, EcoRI may be used for theFwd primer and HindIII for the Rev primer.

Amplicon Digestion.

Set up the digestion reaction as follows:

Component Amount (ul) Fast Digest buffer, 10X 3 FastDigest EcoRI 1FastDigest HindIII 1 Normalized DNA (20 ng/ul) 10 ddH₂O 15 Total volume30

pUC19 backbone digestion. Set up the digestion reaction as follows:

Component Amount (ul) Fast Digest buffer, 10X 3 FastDigest EcoRI 1FastDigest HindIII 1 FastAP Alkaline Phosphatase 1 pUC19 vector (200ng/ul) 5 ddH₂O 20 Total volume 30

Applicants purified the digestion reactions using the QIAQuick PCRpurification kit. Pause point: Purified PCR product may be stored at−20° C.

Applicants ligated the digested pUC19 backbone and Sanger amplicons at a1:3 vector:insert ratio as follows:

Component Amount (ul) Digested pUC19 x (50 ng) Digested insert x (1:3vector:insert molar ratio) T7 ligase  1 2X Rapid Ligation Buffer 10ddH₂O x Total volume 20

Transformation.

Applicants transformed the PlasmidSafe-treated plasmid into a competentE. coli strain, according to the protocol supplied with the cells.Applicants recommend Stb13 for quick transformation. Briefly, 5 ul ofthe product from step 95 is added into 20 ul of ice-cold chemicallycompetent Stb13 cells, incubated on ice for 10 m, heat shocked at 42° C.for 30 s, returned immediately to ice for 2 m, 100 ul of SOC medium isadded, and plated onto an LB plate containing 100 ug/ml ampicillin. Thisis incubated overnight at 37° C.

Day 2: Applicants inspected plates for colony growth. Typically, thereare no colonies on the negative control plates (ligation ofEcoRI-HindIII digested pUC19 only, no Sanger amplicon insert), and tensto hundreds of colonies on the pUC19-Sanger amplicon cloning plates.

Day 3: Applicants isolated plasmid DNA from overnight cultures using aQIAprep Spin miniprep kit according to the manufacturer's instructions.

Sanger Sequencing.

Applicants verified the sequence of each colony by sequencing from thepUC19 backbone using the pUC19-For primer. Applicants referenced thesequencing results against the expected genomic DNA sequence to checkfor the presence of Cas9-induced NHEJ mutations. % editing efficiency=(#modified clones)/(# total clones). It is important to pick a reasonablenumber of clones (>24) to generate accurate modification efficiencies.

Genotyping for Microdeletion. Timing•2-3 d Hands on; 2-3 Weeks Expansion

Cells were transfected as described above with a pair of sgRNAstargeting the region to be deleted.

24 h post-transfection, clonal lines are isolated by FACS or serialdilution as described above.

Cells are expanded for 2-3 weeks.

Applicants harvested DNA from clonal lines as described above using 10ul QuickExtract solution and normalized genomic DNA with ddH₂O to afinal concentration of 50-100 ng/ul.

PCR Amplify the Modified Region.

The PCR reaction is set up as follows:

Final Component: Amount (ul) concentration Herculase II PCR buffer, 5X10 1X dNTP, 100 mM (25 mM each) 1 1 mM Out Fwd primer (10 uM) 1 0.2 uMOut Rev primer (10 uM) 1 0.2 uM Herculase II Fusion polymerase 1 MgCl2(25 mM) 2 1 mM ddH₂O 32 Total 48 (for each reaction)

Note: if deletion size is more than 1 kb, set up a parallel set of PCRreactions with In-Fwd and In-Rev primers to screen for the presence ofthe wt allele.

To screen for inversions, a PCR reaction is set up as follows:

Final Component: Amount (ul) concentration Herculase II PCR buffer, 5X10 1X dNTP, 100 mM (25 mM each) 1 1 mM Out Fwd or Out-Rev primer (10 uM)1 0.2 uM In Fwd or In-Rev primer (10 uM) 1 0.2 uM Herculase II Fusionpolymerase 1 MgCl₂ (25 mM) 2 1 mM ddH₂O 32 Total 48 (for each reaction)

Note: primers are paired either as Out-Fwd+In Fwd, or Out-Rev+In-Rev.

Applicants added 100-200 ng of normalized genomic DNA template from step103 for each reaction.

PCR reaction was performed using the following cycling conditions:

Cycle number Denature Anneal Extend  1 95° C., 2 min 2-31 95° C., 20 s60° C., 20 s 72° C., 30 s 32 72° C., 3 m

Applicants run 2-5 ul of PCR product on a 1-2% gel to check for product.Although these PCR conditions are designed to work with most primers,some primers may need additional optimization by adjusting the templateconcentration, MgCl₂ concentration, and/or the annealing temperature.

Genotyping for Targeted Modifications Via HDR. Timing•2-3 d, 2-3 h Handson

Applicants harvested DNA as described above using QuickExtract solutionand normalized genomic DNA with TE to a final concentration of 100-200ng/ul.

PCR Amplify the Modified Region.

The PCR reaction is set up as follows:

Final Component: Amount (ul) concentration Herculase II PCR buffer, 5X10 1X dNTP, 100 mM (25 mM each) 1 1 mM HDR Fwd primer (10 uM) 1 0.2 uMHDR Rev primer (10 uM) 1 0.2 uM Herculase II Fusion polymerase 1 MgCl₂(25 mM) 2 1 mM ddH₂O 33 Total 49 (for each reaction)

Applicants added 100-200 ng of genomic DNA template from step 109 foreach reaction and run the following program.

Cycle number Denature Anneal Extend  1 95° C., 2 min 2-31 95° C., 20 s60° C., 20 s 72° C., 30-60 s per kb 32 72° C., 3 min

Applicants ran 5 ul of PCR product on a 0.8-1% gel to check forsingle-band product. Primers may need additional optimization byadjusting the template concentration, MgCl₂ concentration, and/or theannealing temperature.

Applicants purified the PCR reactions using the QIAQuick PCRpurification kit.

In the HDR example, a HindIII restriction site is inserted into the EMX1gene. These are detected by a restriction digest of the PCR amplicon:

Component Amount (ul) Purified PCR amplicon (200-300 ng) x F.D. buffer,Green 1 HindIII 0.5 ddH2O x Total 10

i. The DNA is digested for 10 m at 37° C.:

ii. Applicants ran 10 ul of the digested product with loading dye on a4-20% gradient polyacrylamide TBE gel until the xylene cyanol band hadmigrated to the bottom of the gel.

iii. Applicants stained the gel with 1×SYBR Gold dye while rocking for15 m.

iv. The cleavage products are imaged and quantified as described abovein the SURVEYOR assay section. HDR efficiency is estimated by theformula: (b+c)/(a+b+c), where a is the integrated intensity for theundigested HDR PCR product, and b and c are the integrated intensitiesfor the HindIII-cut fragments.

Alternatively, purified PCR amplicons from step 113 may be cloned andgenotyped using Sanger sequencing or NGS.

Deep Sequencing and Off-Target Analysis•Timing 1-2 d

The online CRISPR target design tool generates candidate genomicoff-target sites for each identified target site. Off-target analysis atthese sites can be performed by SURVEYOR nuclease assay, Sangersequencing, or next-generation deep sequencing. Given the likelihood oflow or undetectable modification rates at many of these sites,Applicants recommend deep sequencing with the Illumina Miseq platformfor high sensitivity and accuracy. Protocols will vary with sequencingplatform; here, Applicants briefly describe a fusion PCR method forattaching sequencing adapters.

Design Deep Sequencing Primers.

Next-generation sequencing (NGS) primers are designed for shorteramplicons, typically in the 100-200 bp size range. Primers may bemanually designed using NCBI Primer-Blast or generated with onlineCRISPR target design tools (website at genome-engineering.org/tools).

Harvest genomic DNA from Cas9-targeted cells. Normalize QuickExtractgenomic DNA to 100-200 ng/ul with ddH2O.

Initial Library Preparation PCR.

Using the NGS primers from step 116, prepare the initial librarypreparation PCR

Final Component: Amount (ul) concentration Herculase II PCR buffer, 5X10 1X dNTP, 100 mM (25 mM each) 1 1 mM NGS Fwd primer (10uM) 1 0.2 uMNGS Rev primer (10uM) 1 0.2 uM Herculase II Fusion 1 polymerase MgCl2(25 mM) 2 1 mM ddH2O 33 Total 49 (for each reaction)

Add 100-200 ng of normalized genomic DNA template for each reaction.

Perform PCR reaction using the following cycling conditions, for no morethan 20 amplification cycles:

Cycle number Denature Anneal Extend  1 95° C., 2 min 2-21 95° C., 20 s60° C., 20 s 72° C., 15 s 22 72° C., 3 min

Run 2-5 ul of PCR product on a 1% gel to check for single-band product.As with all genomic DNA PCRs, NGS primers may require additionaloptimization by adjusting the template concentration, MgCl₂concentration, and/or the annealing temperature.

Purify the PCR reactions using the QIAQuick PCR purification kit andnormalize eluant to 20 ng/ul. Pause point: Purified PCR product may bestored at −20° C.

Nextera XT DNA Sample Preparation Kit.

Following the manufacturer's protocol, generate Miseq sequencing-readylibraries with unique barcodes for each sample.

Analyze Sequencing Data.

Off-target analysis may be performed through read alignment programssuch as ClustalW, Geneious, or simple sequence analysis scripts.

Timing

Steps 1-2 Design and synthesis of sgRNA oligos and ssODNs: 1-5 d,variable depending on supplier

Steps 3-5 Construction of CRISPR plasmid or PCR expression cassette: 2 hto 3 d

Steps 6-53 Transfection into cell lines: 3 d (1 h hands-on time)

Steps 54-70 Optional derivation of clonal lines: 1-3 weeks, variabledepending on cell type

Steps 71-91 Functional validation of NHEJ via SURVEYOR: 5-6 h

Steps 92-124 Genotyping via Sanger or next-gen deep sequencing: 2-3 d(3-4 h hands on time)

Addressing Situations Concerning Herein Examples

Situation Solution No amplification of Titrate U6-template concentrationsgRNA SURVEYOR or HDR PCR Titrate MgCl2; normalize and titrate templatedirty or no amplification concentration; annealing temp gradient;redesign primers Unequal amplification of Set up separate PCRs to detectwildtype and deletion alleles in microdeletion alleles; Redesign primerswith similar sized amplicons PCRs Colonies on negative Increase BbsI;increase Golden Gate reaction cycle control plate number, cut PX330separately with Antarctic Phosphate treatment No sgRNA sequences orScreen additional colonies wrong sequences Low lipofectamine Check cellhealth and density; titrate DNA; add GFP transfection efficiencytransfection control Low nucleofection Check cell health and density;titrate DNA; suspend to transfection efficiency single cell Clumps or nocells after Filter cells before FACS; dissociate to single cells; FACSresuspend in appropriate density Clumps or no cells in serial Recountcells; dissociate to single cells and filter through dilution strainer;check serial dilution High SURVEYOR Redesign primers to prime fromdifferent locations background on negative sample Dirty SURVEYOR resultPurify PCR product; reduce input DNA; reduce 42° C. on gel incubation to30 m No SURVEYOR cleavage Purify and normalize PCR product; re-annealwith TaqB buffer; Redesign sgRNAs; sequence verify Cas9 on px330backbone Samples do not sink in Supplement with MgCl2 to a finalconcentration of 15 mM TBE acrylamide gel or add loading buffercontaining glycerol

Discussion

CRISPR-Cas may be easily multiplexed to facilitate simultaneousmodification of several genes and mediate chromosomal microdeletions athigh efficiencies. Applicants used two sgRNAs to demonstratesimultaneous targeting of the human GRIN2B and DYRK1A loci atefficiencies of up to 68% in HEK293FT cells. Likewise, a pair of sgRNAsmay be used to mediate microdeletions, such as excision of an exon,which can be genotyped by PCR on a clonal level. Note that the preciselocation of exon junctions can vary. Applicants also demonstrated theuse of ssODNs and targeting vector to mediate HDR with both wildtype andnickase mutant of Cas9 in HEK 293FT and HUES9 cells (FIG. 30). Note thatApplicants have not been able to detect HDR in HUES9 cells using theCas9 nickase, which may be due to low efficiency or a potentialdifference in repair activities in HUES9 cells. Although these valuesare typical, there is some variability in the cleavage efficiency of agiven sgRNA, and on rare occasions certain sgRNAs may not work forreasons yet unknown. Applicants recommend designing two sgRNAs for eachlocus, and testing their efficiencies in the intended cell type.

Example 31: NLSs

Cas9 Transcriptional Modulator: Applicants set out to turn the Cas9/gRNACRISPR system into a generalized DNA binding system in which functionsbeyond DNA cleavage can be executed. For instance, by fusing functionaldomain(s) onto a catalytically inactive Cas9 Applicants have impartednovel functions, such as transcriptional activation/repression,methylation/demethylation, or chromatin modifications. To accomplishthis goal Applicants made a catalytically inactive Cas9 mutant bychanging two residues essential for nuclease activity, D10 and H840, toalanine. By mutating these two residues the nuclease activity of Cas9 isabolished while maintaining the ability to bind target DNA. Thefunctional domains Applicants decided to focus on to test Applicants'hypothesis are the transcriptional activator VP64 and thetranscriptional repressors SID and KRAB.

Cas9 Nuclear localization: Applicants hypothesized that the mosteffective Cas9 transcriptional modulator would be strongly localized tothe nucleus where it would have its greatest influence on transcription.Moreover, any residual Cas9 in the cytoplasm could have unwantedeffects. Applicants determined that wild-type Cas9 does not localizeinto the nucleus without including multiple nuclear localization signals(NLSs) (although a CRISPR system need not have one or more NLSs butadvantageously has at least one or more NLS(s)). Because multiple NLSsequences were required it was reasoned that it is difficult to get Cas9into the nucleus and any additional domain that is fused to Cas9 coulddisrupt the nuclear localization. Therefore, Applicants made fourCas9-VP64-GFP fusion constructs with different NLS sequences(pXRP02-pLenti2-EF1a-NLS-hSpCsn1(10A,840A)-NLS-VP64-EGFP,pXRP04-pLenti2-EF1a-NLS-hSpCsn1(10A,840A)-NLS-VP64-2A-EGFP-NLS,pXRP06-pLenti2-EF1a-NLS-EGFP-VP64-NLS-hSpCsn1(10A,840A)-NLS,pXRP08-pLenti2-EF1a-NLS-VP64-NLS-hSpCsn1(10A,840A)-NLS-VP64-EGFP-NLS).These constructs were cloned into a lenti backbone under the expressionof the human EF1a promoter. The WPRE element was also added for morerobust protein expression. Each construct was transfected into HEK 293FTcells using Lipofectame 2000 and imaged 24 hours post-transfection. Thebest nuclear localization is obtained when the fusion proteins have NLSsequences on both the N- and C-term of the fusion protein. The highestobserved nuclear localization occurred in the construct with four NLSelements.

To more robustly understand the influence of NLS elements on Cas9Applicants made 16 Cas9-GFP fusions by adding the same alpha importinNLS sequence on either the N- or C-term looking at zero to three tandemrepeats. Each construct was transfected into HEK 293FT cells usingLipofectame 2000 and imaged 24 hours post-transfection. Notably, thenumber of NLS elements does not directly correlate with the extent ofnuclear localization. Adding an NLS on the C-term has a greaterinfluence on nuclear localization than adding on the N-term.

Cas9 Transcriptional Activator: Applicants functionally tested theCas9-VP64 protein by targeting the Sox2 locus and quantifyingtranscriptional activation by RT-qPCR. Eight DNA target sites werechosen to span the promoter of Sox2. Each construct was transfected intoHEK 293FT cells using Lipofectame 2000 and 72 hours post-transfectiontotal RNA was extracted from the cells. 1 ug of RNA was reversetranscribed into cDNA (qScript Supermix) in a 40 ul reaction. 2 ul ofreaction product was added into a single 20 ul TaqMan assay qPCRreaction. Each experiment was performed in biological and technicaltriplicates. No RT control and no template control reactions showed noamplification. Constructs that do not show strong nuclear localization,pXRPO2 and pXRP04, result in no activation. For the construct that didshow strong nuclear localization, pXRP08, moderate activation wasobserved. Statistically significant activation was observed in the caseof guide RNAs Sox2.4 and Sox2.5.

Example 32: In Vivo Mouse Data

Material and Reagents

Herculase II fusion polymerase (Agilent Technologies, cat. no. 600679)

10×NEBuffer 4 (NEB, cat. No. B7004S)

BsaI HF (NEB, cat. No. R3535S)

T7 DNA ligase (Enzymatics, cat. no. L602L)

Fast Digest buffer, 10× (ThermoScientific, cat. No. B64)

FastDigest NotI (ThermoScientific, cat. No. FD0594)

FastAP Alkaline Phosphatase (ThermoScientific, cat. No. EF0651)

Lipofectamine2000 (Life Technologies, cat. No. 11668-019)

Trypsin (Life Technologies, cat. No. 15400054)

Forceps #4 (Sigma, cat. No. Z168777-1EA)

Forceps #5 (Sigma, cat. No. F6521-1EA)

10× Hank's Balanced Salt Solution (Sigma, cat. No. H4641-500 ML)

Penicillin/Streptomycin solution (Life Technologies, cat. No. P4333)

Neurobasal (Life Technologies, cat. No. 21103049)

B27 Supplement (Life Technologies, cat. No. 17504044)

L-glutamine (Life Technologies, cat. No. 25030081)

Glutamate (Sigma, cat. No. RES5063G-A7)

β-mercaptoethanol (Sigma, cat. No. M6250-100 ML)

HA rabbit antibody (Cell Signaling, cat. No. 3724S)

LIVE/DEAD® Cell Imaging Kit (Life Technologies, cat. No. R37601)

30G World Precision Instrument syringe (World Precision Instruments,cat. No. NANOFIL)

Stereotaxic apparatus (Kopf Instruments)

UltraMicroPump3 (World Precision Instruments, cat. No. UMP3-4)

Sucrose (Sigma, cat. No. 57903)

Calcium chloride (Sigma, cat. No. C1016)

Magnesium acetate (Sigma, cat. No. M0631)

Tris-HCl (Sigma, cat. no T5941)

EDTA (Sigma, cat. No. E6758)

NP-40 (Sigma, cat. No. NP40)

Phenylmethanesulfonyl fluoride (Sigma, cat. No. 78830)

Magnesium chloride (Sigma, cat. No. M8266)

Potassium chloride (Sigma, cat. No. P9333)

β-glycerophosphate (Sigma, cat. No. G9422)

Glycerol (Sigma, cat. No. G9012)

Vybrant® DyeCycle™ Ruby Stain (Life technologies, cat. No. 54942)

FACS Aria Flu-act-cell sorter (Koch Institute of MIT, Cambridge US)

DNAeasy Blood & Tissue Kit (Qiagen, cat. No. 69504)

Procedure

Constructing gRNA Multiplexes for Using In Vivo in the Brain

Applicants designed and PCR amplified single gRNAs targeting mouse TETand DNMT family members (as described herein) Targeting efficiency wasassessed in N2a cell line (FIG. 33). To obtain simultaneous modificationof several genes in vivo, efficient gRNA was multiplexed inAAV-packaging vector (FIG. 34). To facilitate further analysis of systemefficiency applicants added to the system expression cassette consistentof GFP-KASH domain fusion protein under control of human Synapsin Ipromoter (FIG. 34). This modification allows for further analysis ofsystem efficiency in neuronal population (more detail procedure insection Sorting nuclei and in vivo results). All 4 parts of the systemwere PCR amplified using Herculase II Fusion polymerase using followingprimers:

1st U6 Fw: (SEQ ID NO: 196)gagggtctcgtccttgcggccgcgctagcgagggcctatttcccatgat tc 1st gRNA Rv:(SEQ ID NO: 197) ctcggtctcggtAAAAAAgcaccgactcggtgccactttttcaagttgataacggactagccttattttaacttgctaTTTCtagctctaaaacNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNGGTGTTTCGTCCTTTCCAC 2nd U6 Fw: (SEQ ID NO: 198)gagggtctcTTTaccggtgagggcctatttcccatgattcc 2nd gRNA Rv: (SEQ ID NO: 199)ctcggtctcctcAAAAAAgcaccgactcggtgccactttttcaagttgataacggactagccttattttaacttgctaTTTCtagctctaaaacNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNGGTGTTTCGTCCTTTCCAC 3rd U6 Fw: (SEQ ID NO: 200)gagggtctcTTTgagctcgagggcctatttcccatgattc 3rd gRNA Rv: (SEQ ID NO: 201)ctcggtctcgcgtAAAAAAgcaccgactcggtgccactttttcaagttgataacggactagccttattttaacttgctaTTTCtagctctaaaacNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNGGTGTTTCGTCCTTTCCA hSyn_GFP-kash Fw: (SEQ ID NO: 202)gagggtctcTTacgcgtgtgtctagac hSyn_GFP-kash Rv: (SEQ ID NO: 203)ctcggtctcAaggaCAGGGAAGGGAGCAGTGGTTCACGCCTGTAATCCCAGCAATTTGGGAGGCCAAGGTGGGTAGATCACCTGAGATTAGGAGTTGC(NNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNN is a reverse compliment targeted genomic sequence)

Applicants used Golden Gate strategy to assemble all parts (1:1molecular ratio) of the system in a single step reaction:

1^(st) U6_gRNA 18 ng 2^(nd) U6_gRNA 18 ng 3^(rd) U6_gRNA 18 ngSyn_GFP-kash 100 ng 10x NEBuffer 4 1.0 μl 10x BSA 1.0 μl 10 mM ATP 1.0μl BsaI HF 0.75 μl T7 ligase 0.25 μl ddH₂O 10 μl

Cycle number Condition 1-50 37° C. for 5 m, 21° C. for 5 m

Golden Gate reaction product was PCR amplified using Herculase II fusionpolymerase and following primers:

Fw (SEQ ID NO: 204) 5′ cctgtccttgcggccgcgctagcgagggcc Rv(SEQ ID NO: 205) 5′ cacgcggccgcaaggacagggaagggagcag

PCR product was cloned into AAV backbone, between ITR sequences usingNotI restriction sites:

PCR product digestion: Fast Digest buffer, 10X 3 μl FastDigest NotI 1 μlDNA 1 μg ddH₂O up to 30 μl

AAV Backbone Digestion:

Fast Digest buffer, 10X 3 μl FastDigest NotI 1 μl FastAP AlkalinePhosphatase 1 μl AAV backbone 1 μg ddH₂O up to 30 μl

After 20 min incubation in 37° C. samples were purified using QIAQuickPCR purification kit. Standardized samples were ligated at a 1:3vector:insert ratio as follows:

Digested pUC19 50 ng Digested insert 1:3 vector:insert molar ratio T7ligase 1 μl 2X Rapid Ligation Buffer 5 μl ddH₂O up to 10 μl

After transformation of bacteria with ligation reaction product,applicants confirmed obtained clones with Sanger sequencing.

Positive DNA clones were tested in N2a cells after co-transfection withCas9 construct (FIGS. 35 and 36).

Design of new Cas9 constructs for AAV delivery

AAV delivery system despite its unique features has packinglimitation—to successfully deliver expressing cassette in vivo it has tobe in size <then 4.7 kb. To decrease the size of SpCas9 expressingcassette and facilitate delivery applicants tested several alteration:different promoters, shorter polyA signal and finally a smaller versionof Cas9 from Staphylococcus aureus (SaCas9) (FIGS. 37 and 38). Alltested promoters were previously tested and published to be active inneurons, including mouse Mecp2 (Gray et al., 2011), ratMap1b andtruncated rat Map1b (Liu and Fischer, 1996). Alternative synthetic polyAsequence was previously shown to be functional as well (Levitt et al.,1989; Gray et al., 2011). All cloned constructs were expressed in N2acells after transfection with Lipofectamine 2000, and tested withWestern blotting method (FIG. 39).

Testing AAV Multiplex System in Primary Neurons

To confirm functionality of developed system in neurons, Applicants useprimary neuronal cultures in vitro. Mouse cortical neurons was preparedaccording to the protocol published previously by Banker and Goslin(Banker and Goslin, 1988).

Neuronal cells are obtained from embryonic day 16. Embryos are extractedfrom the euthanized pregnant female and decapitated, and the heads areplaced in ice-cold HBSS. The brains are then extracted from the skullswith forceps (#4 and #5) and transferred to another change of ice-coldHBSS. Further steps are performed with the aid of a stereoscopicmicroscope in a Petri dish filled with ice-cold HBSS and #5 forceps. Thehemispheres are separated from each other and the brainstem and clearedof meninges. The hippocampi are then very carefully dissected and placedin a 15 ml conical tube filled with ice-cold HBSS. Cortices that remainafter hippocampal dissection can be used for further cell isolationusing an analogous protocol after removing the brain steam residuals andolfactory bulbs. Isolated hippocampi are washed three times with 10 mlice-cold HBSS and dissociated by 15 min incubation with trypsin in HBSS(4 ml HBSS with the addition of 10 μl 2.5% trypsin per hippocampus) at37° C. After trypsinization, the hippocampi are very carefully washedthree times to remove any traces of trypsin with HBSS preheated to 37°C. and dissociated in warm HBSS. Applicants usually dissociate cellsobtained from 10-12 embryos in 1 ml HBSS using 1 ml pipette tips anddilute dissociated cells up to 4 ml. Cells are plated at a density of250 cells/mm2 and cultured at 37° C. and 5% CO2 for up to 3 week

HBSS

435 ml H2O

50 ml 10× Hank's Balanced Salt Solution

16.5 ml 0.3M HEPES pH 7.3

5 ml penicillin-streptomycin solution

Filter (0.2 μm) and store 4° C.

Neuron Plating Medium (100 ml)

97 ml Neurobasal

2 ml B27 Supplement

1 ml penicillin-streptomycin solution

250 μl glutamine

125 μl glutamate

Neurons are transduced with concentrated AAV1/2 virus or AAV1 virus fromfiltered medium of HEK293FT cells, between 4-7 days in culture and keepfor at least one week in culture after transduction to allow fordelivered gene expression.

AAV-Driven Expression of the System

Applicants confirmed expression of SpCas9 and SaCas9 in neuronalcultures after AAV delivery using Western blot method (FIG. 42). Oneweek after transduction neurons were collected in NuPage SDS loadingbuffer with β-mercaptoethanol to denaturate proteins in 95° C. for 5min. Samples were separated on SDS PAGE gel and transferred on PVDFmembrane for WB protein detection. Cas9 proteins were detected with HAantibody.

Expression of Syn-GFP-kash from gRNA multiplex AAV was confirmed withfluorescent microscopy (FIG. 50).

Toxicity

To assess the toxicity of AAV with CRISPR system Applicants testedoverall morphology of neurons one week after virus transduction (FIG.45). Additionally, Applicants tested potential toxicity of designedsystem with the LIVE/DEAD® Cell Imaging Kit, which allows to distinguishlive and dead cells in culture. It is based on the presence ofintracellular esterase activity (as determined by the enzymaticconversion of the non-fluorescent calcein AM to the intensely greenfluorescent calcein). On the other hand, the red, cell-impermeantcomponent of the Kit enters cells with damaged membranes only and bindto DNA generating fluorescence in dead cells. Both flourophores can beeasily visualized in living cells with fluorescent microscopy.AAV-driven expression of Cas9 proteins and multiplex gRNA constructs inthe primary cortical neurons was well tolerated and not toxic (FIGS. 43and 44), what indicates that designed AAV system is suitable for in vivotests.

Virus Production

Concentrated virus was produced according to the methods described inMcClure et al., 2011. Supernatant virus production occurred in HEK293FTcells.

Brain Surgeries

For viral vector injections 10-15 week old male C57BL/6N mice wereanesthetized with a Ketamine/Xylazine cocktail (Ketamine dose of 100mg/kg and Xylazine dose of 10 mg/kg) by intraperitoneal injection.Intraperitonial administration of Buprenex was used as a pre-emptiveanalgesic (1 mg/kg). Animals were immobilized in a Kopf stereotaxicapparatus using intra-aural positioning studs and tooth bar to maintainan immobile skull. Using a hand-held drill, a hole (1-2 mm) at −3.0 mmposterior to Bregma and 3.5 mm lateral for injection in the CA1 regionof the hippocampus was made. Using 30G World Precision Instrumentsyringe at a depth of 2.5 mm, the solution of AAV viral particles in atotal volume of 1 ul was injected. The injection was monitored by a‘World Precision Instruments UltraMicroPump3’ injection pump at a flowrate of 0.5 ul/min to prevent tissue damage. When the injection wascomplete, the injection needle was removed slowly, at a rate of 0.5mm/min. After injection, the skin was sealed with 6-0 Ethilon sutures.Animals were postoperatively hydrated with 1 mL lactated Ringer's(subcutaneous) and housed in a temperature controlled (37° C.)environment until achieving an ambulatory recovery. 3 weeks aftersurgery animals were euthanized by deep anesthesia followed by tissueremoval for nuclei sorting or with 4% paraformaldehyde perfusion forimmunochemistry.

Sorting Nuclei and In Vivo Results

Applicants designed a method to specifically genetically tag the gRNAtargeted neuronal cell nuclei with GFP for Fluorescent Activated CellSorting (FACS) of the labeled cell nuclei and downstream processing ofDNA, RNA and nuclear proteins. To that purpose the applicants' multiplextargeting vector was designed to express both a fusion protein betweenGFP and the mouse nuclear membrane protein domain KASH (Starr D A, 2011,Current biology) and the 3 gRNAs to target specific gene loci ofinterest (FIG. 34). GFP-KASH was expressed under the control of thehuman Synapsin promoter to specifically label neurons. The amino acid ofthe fusion protein GFP-KASH was:

(SEQ ID NO: 206) MVSKGEELFTGVVPILVELDGDVNGHKFSVSGEGEGDATYGKLTLKFICTTGKLPVPWPTLVTTLTYGVQCFSRYPDHMKQHDFFKSAMPEGYVQERTIFFKDDGNYKTRAEVKFEGDTLVNRIELKGIDFKEDGNILGHKLEYNYNSHNVYIMADKQKNGIKVNFKIRHNIEDGSVQLADHYQQNTPIGDGPVLLPDNHYLSTQSALSKDPNEKRDHMVLLEFVTAAGITLGMDELYKSGLRSREEEEETDSRMPHLDSPGSSQPRRSFLSRVIRAALPLQLLLLLLLLLACLLPASEDDYSCTQANNFARSFYPMLRYTNGPPPT

One week after AAV1/2 mediated delivery into the brain a robustexpression of GFP-KASH was observed. For FACS and downstream processingof labeled nuclei, the hippocampi were dissected 3 weeks after surgeryand processed for cell nuclei purification using a gradientcentrifugation step. For that purpose the tissue was homogenized in 320mM Sucrose, 5 mM CaCl, 3 mM Mg(Ac)2, 10 mM Tris pH 7.8, 0.1 mM EDTA,0.1% NP40, 0.1 mM Phenylmethanesulfonyl fluoride (PMSF), 1 mMβ-mercaptoethanol using 2 ml Dounce homogenizer (Sigma) The homogenisatewas centrifuged on a 25% to 29% Optiprep® gradient according to themanufacture's protocol for 30 min at 3.500 rpm at 4° C. The nuclearpellet was resuspended in 340 mM Sucrose, 2 mM MgCl2, 25 mM KCl, 65 mMglycerophosphate, 5% glycerol, 0.1 mM PMSF, 1 mM β-mercaptoethanol andVybrant® DyeCycle™ Ruby Stain (Life technologies) was added to labelcell nuclei (offers near-infrared emission for DNA). The labeled andpurified nuclei were sorted by FACS using an Aria Flu-act-cell sorterand BDFACS Diva software. The sorted GFP+ and GFP-nuclei were finallyused to purify genomic DNA using DNAeasy Blood & Tissue Kit (Qiagen) forSurveyor assay analysis of the targeted genomic regions. The sameapproach can be easily used to purify nuclear RNA or protein fromtargeted cells for downstream processing. Due to the 2-vector system(FIG. 34) the applicants using in this approach efficient Cas9 mediatedDNA cleavage was expected to occur only in a small subset of cells inthe brain (cells which were co-infected with both the multiplextargeting vector and the Cas9 encoding vector). The method describedhere enables the applicants to specifically purify DNA, RNA and nuclearproteins from the cell population expressing the 3 gRNAs of interest andtherefore are supposed to undergo Cas9 mediated DNA cleavage. By usingthis method the applicants were able to visualize efficient DNA cleavagein vivo occurring only in a small subset of cells.

Essentially, what Applicants have shown here is targeted in vivocleavage.

Furthermore, Applicants used a multiple approach, with several differentsequences targeted at the same time, but independently. Presented systemcan be applied for studying brain pathologic conditions (gene knock out,e.g. Parkinson disease) and also open a field for further development ofgenome editing tools in the brain. By replacing nuclease activity withgene transcription regulators or epigenetic regulators it will bepossible to answer whole spectrum of scientific question about role ofgene regulation and epigenetic changes in the brain in not only in thepathologic conditions but also in physiological process as learning andmemory formation. Finally, presented technology can be applied in morecomplex mammalian system as primates, what allows to overcome currenttechnology limitations.

Example 33: Model Data

Several disease models have been specifically investigated. Theseinclude de novo autism risk genes CHD8, KATNAL2, and SCN2A; and thesyndromic autism (Angelman Syndrome) gene UBE3A. These genes andresulting autism models are of course preferred, but show that theinvention may be applied to any gene and therefore any model ispossible.

Applicants have made these cells lines using Cas9 nuclease in humanembryonic stem cells (hESCs). The lines were created by transienttransfection of hESCs with Cbh-Cas9-2A-EGFP and pU6-sgRNA. Two sgRNAsare designed for each gene targeting most often the same exons in whichpatient nonsense (knock-out) mutations have been recently described fromwhole exome sequencing studies of autistic patients. The Cas9-2A-EGFPand pU6 plasmids were created specifically for this project.

Example 34: AAV Production System or Protocol

An AAV production system or protocol that was developed for, and worksparticularly well with, high through put screening uses is providedherein, but it has broader applicability in the present invention aswell. Manipulating endogenous gene expression presents variouschallenges, as the rate of expression depends on many factors, includingregulatory elements, mRNA processing, and transcript stability. Toovercome this challenge, Applicants developed an adeno-associated virus(AAV)-based vector for the delivery. AAV has an ssDNA-based genome andis therefore less susceptible to recombination.

AAV1/2 (serotype AAV1/2, i.e., hybrid or mosaic AAV1/AAV2 capsid AAV)heparin purified concentrated virus protocol

Media: D10+HEPES

500 ml bottle DMEM high glucose+Glutamax (GIBCO)

50 ml Hyclone FBS (heat-inactivated) (Thermo Fischer)

5.5 ml HEPES solution (1M, GIBCO)

Cells: low passage HEK293FT (passage<10 at time of virus production,thaw new cells of passage 2-4 for virus production, grow up for 3-5passages)

Transfection reagent: Polyethylenimine (PEI) “Max”

Dissolve 50 mg PEI “Max” in 50 ml sterile Ultrapure H2O

Adjust pH to 7.1

Filter with 0.22 um fliptop filter

Seal tube and wrap with parafilm

Freeze aliquots at −20° C. (for storage, can also be used immediately)

Cell Culture

Culture low passage HEK293FT in D10+HEPES

Passage everyday between 1:2 and 1:2.5

Advantageously do not allow cells to reach more than 85% confluency

For T75

Warm10 ml HBSS (—Mg2+, —Ca2+, GIBCO)+1 ml TrypLE Express (GIBCO) perflask to 37° C.

(Waterbath)

Aspirate media fully

Add 10 ml warm HBSS gently (to wash out media completely)

Add 1 ml TrypLE per Flask

Place flask in incubator (37° C.) for 1 min

Rock flask to detach cells

Add 9 ml D10+HEPES media (37° C.)

Pipette up and down 5 times to generate single cell suspension

Split at 1:2-1:2.5 (12 ml media for T75) ratio (if cells are growingmore slowly, discard and thaw a new batch, they are not in optimalgrowth)

transfer to T225 as soon as enough cells are present (for ease ofhandling large amounts of cells)

AAV production (5*15 cm dish scale per construct):

Plate 10 million cells in 21.5 ml media into a 15 cm dish

Incubate for 18-22 hours at 37° C.

Transfection is ideal at 80% confluence

Per plate

Prewarm 22 ml media (D10+HEPES)

Prepare tube with DNA mixture (use endofree maxiprep DNA):

5.2 ug vector of interest plasmid

4.35 ug AAV 1 serotype plasmid

4.35 ug AAV 2 serotype plasmid

10.4 ug pDF6 plasmid (adenovirus helper genes) □Vortex to mix

Add 434 uL DMEM (no serum!)

Add 130 ul PEI solution

Vortex 5-10 seconds

Add DNA/DMEM/PEI mixture to prewarmed media

Vortex briefly to mix

Replace media in 15 cm dish with DNA/DMEM/PEI mixture

Return to 37° C. incubator

Incubate 48 h before harvesting (make sure medium isn't turning tooacidic)

Virus Harvest:

1. aspirate media carefully from 15 cm dish dishes (advantageously donot dislodge cells)

2. Add 25 ml RT DPBS (Invitrogen) to each plate and gently remove cellswith a cell scraper. Collect suspension in 50 ml tubes.

3. Pellet cells at 800×g for 10 minutes.

4. Discard supernatant

pause point: freeze cell pellet at −80 C if desired

5. resuspend pellet in 150 mM NaCl, 20 mM Tris pH 8.0, use 10 ml pertissue culture plate.

6. Prepare a fresh solution of 10% sodium deoxycholate in dH2O. Add 1.25ml of this per tissue culture plate for a final concentration of 0.5%.Add benzonase nuclease to a final concentration of 50 units per ml. Mixtube thoroughly.

7. Incubate at 37° C. for 1 hour (Waterbath).

8. Remove cellular debris by centrifuging at 3000×g for 15 mins.Transfer to fresh 50 ml tube and ensure all cell debris has been removedto prevent blocking of heparin columns.

Heparin column purification of AAV1/2:

1. Set up HiTrap heparin columns using a peristaltic pump so thatsolutions flow through the column at 1 ml per minute. It is important toensure no air bubbles are introduced into the heparin column.

2. Equilibrate the column with 10 ml 150 mM NaCl, 20 mM Tris, pH 8.0using the peristaltic pump.

3. Binding of virus: Apply 50 ml virus solution to column and allow toflow through.

4. Wash step 1: column with 20 ml 100 mM NaCl, 20 mM Tris, pH 8.0.(using the peristaltic pump)

5. Wash step 2: Using a 3 ml or 5 ml syringe continue to wash the columnwith 1 ml 200 mM NaCl, 20 mM Tris, pH 8.0, followed by 1 ml 300 mM NaCl,20 mM Tris, pH 8.0. Discard the flow-through.

(prepare the syringes with different buffers during the 50 min flowthrough of virus solution above)

6. Elution Using 5 ml syringes and gentle pressure (flow rate of<lml/min) elute the virus from the column by applying:

1.5 ml 400 mM NaCl, 20 mM Tris, pH 8.0

3.0 ml 450 mM NaCl, 20 mM Tris, pH 8.0

1.5 ml 500 mM NaCl, 20 mM Tris, pH 8.0

Collect these in a 15 ml centrifuge tube.

Concentration of AAV1/2:

1. Concentration step 1: Concentrate the eluted virus using Amicon ultra15 ml centrifugal filter units with a 100,000 molecular weight cutoff.Load column eluate into the concentrator and centrifuge at 2000×g for 2minutes (at room temperature. Check concentrated volume—it should beapproximately 500 μl. If necessary, centrifuge in 1 min intervals untilcorrect volume is reached.

2. buffer exchange: Add 1 ml sterile DPBS to filter unit, centrifuge in1 min intervals until correct volume (500 ul) is reached.

3. Concentration step 2: Add 500 ul concentrate to an Amicon Ultra 0.5ml 100K filter unit. Centrifuge at 6000 g for 2 min. Check concentratedvolume—it should be approximately 100 μl. If necessary, centrifuge in 1min intervals until correct volume is reached.

4. Recovery: Invert filter insert and insert into fresh collection tube.Centrifuge at 1000 g for 2 min.

Aliquot and freeze at −80° C.

1 ul is typically required per injection site, small aliquots (e.g. 5ul) are therefore recommended (avoid freeze-thaw of virus).

determine DNaseI-resistant GC particle titer using qPCR (see separateprotocol)

Materials

Amicon Ultra, 0.5 ml, 100K; MILLIPORE; UFC510024

Amicon Ultra, 15 ml, 100K; MILLIPORE; UFC910024

Benzonase nuclease; Sigma-Aldrich, E1014

HiTrap Heparin cartridge; Sigma-Aldrich; 54836

Sodium deoxycholate; Sigma-Aldrich; D5670

AAV1 supernatant production protocol

Media: D10+HEPES

500 ml bottle DMEM high glucose+Glutamax (Invitrogen)

50 ml Hyclone FBS (heat-inactivated) (Thermo Fischer)

5.5 ml HEPES solution (1M, GIBCO)

Cells: low passage HEK293FT (passage<10 at time of virus production)

Thaw new cells of passage 2-4 for virus production, grow up for 2-5passages

Transfection reagent: Polyethylenimine (PEI) “Max”

Dissolve 50 mg PEI “Max” in 50 ml sterile Ultrapure H20

Adjust pH to 7.1

Filter with 0.22 um fliptop filter

Seal tube and wrap with parafilm

Freeze aliquots at −20° C. (for storage, can also be used immediately)

Cell Culture

Culture low passage HEK293FT in D10+HEPES Passage everyday between 1:2and 1:2.5

Advantageously do let cells reach more than 85% confluency

For T75

Warm 10 ml HBSS (—Mg2+, —Ca2+, GIBCO)+1 ml TrypLE Express (GIBCO) perflask to 37° C. (Waterbath)

Aspirate media fully

Add 10 ml warm HBSS gently (to wash out media completely)

Add 1 ml TrypLE per Flask

Place flask in incubator (37° C.) for 1 min

Rock flask to detach cells

Add 9 ml D10+HEPES media (37° C.)

Pipette up and down 5 times to generate single cell suspension

Split at 1:2-1:2.5 (12 ml media for T75) ratio (if cells are growingmore slowly, discard and thaw a new batch, they are not in optimalgrowth)

transfer to T225 as soon as enough cells are present (for ease ofhandling large amounts of cells)

AAV production (single 15 cm dish scale)

Plate 10 million cells in 21.5 ml media into a 15 cm dish

Incubate for 18-22 hours at 37° C.

Transfection is ideal at 80% confluence per plate

Prewarm 22 ml media (D10+HEPES)

Prepare tube with DNA mixture (use endofree maxiprep DNA):

5.2 ug vector of interest plasmid

8.7 ug AAV 1 serotype plasmid

10.4 ug DF6 plasmid (adenovirus helper genes)

Vortex to mix

Add 434 uL DMEM (no serum!) Add 130 ul PEI solution

Vortex 5-10 seconds

Add DNA/DMEM/PEI mixture to prewarmed media

Vortex briefly to mix

Replace media in 15 cm dish with DNA/DMEM/PEI mixture

Return to 37° C. incubator

Incubate 48 h before harvesting (advantageously monitor to ensure mediumis not turning too acidic)

Virus Harvest:

Remove supernatant from 15 cm dish

Filter with 0.45 um filter (low protein binding) Aliquot and freeze at−80° C.

Transduction (primary neuron cultures in 24-well format, SDIV)

Replace complete neurobasal media in each well of neurons to betransduced with fresh neurobasal (usually 400 ul out of 500 ul per wellis replaced)

Thaw AAV supernatant in 37° C. waterbath

Let equilibrate in incubator for 30 min

Add 250 ul AAV supernatant to each well

Incubate 24 h at 37° C.

Remove media/supernatant and replace with fresh complete neurobasal

Expression starts to be visible after 48 h, saturates around 6-7 DaysPost Infection

Constructs for pAAV plasmid with GOI should not exceed 4.8 kb includingboth ITRS.

Example of a human codon optimized sequence (i.e. being optimized forexpression in humans) sequence: SaCas9 is provided below:

(SEQ ID NO: 207) ACCGGTGCCACCATGTACCCATACGATGTTCCAGATTACGCTTCGCCGAAGAAAAAGCGCAAGGTCGAAGCGTCCATGAAAAGGAACTACATTCTGGGGCTGGACATCGGGATTACAAGCGTGGGGTATGGGATTATTGACTATGAAACAAGGGACGTGATCGACGCAGGCGTCAGACTGTTCAAGGAGGCCAACGTGGAAAACAATGAGGGACGGAGAAGCAAGAGGGGAGCCAGGCGCCTGAAACGACGGAGAAGGCACAGAATCCAGAGGGTGAAGAAACTGCTGTTCGATTACAACCTGCTGACCGACCATTCTGAGCTGAGTGGAATTAATCCTTATGAAGCCAGGGTGAAAGGCCTGAGTCAGAAGCTGTCAGAGGAAGAGTTTTCCGCAGCTCTGCTGCACCTGGCTAAGCGCCGAGGAGTGCATAACGTCAATGAGGTGGAAGAGGACACCGGCAACGAGCTGTCTACAAAGGAACAGATCTCACGCAATAGCAAAGCTCTGGAAGAGAAGTATGTCGCAGAGCTGCAGCTGGAACGGCTGAAGAAAGATGGCGAGGTGAGAGGGTCAATTAATAGGTTCAAGACAAGCGACTACGTCAAAGAAGCCAAGCAGCTGCTGAAAGTGCAGAAGGCTTACCACCAGCTGGATCAGAGCTTCATCGATACTTATATCGACCTGCTGGAGACTCGGAGAACCTACTATGAGGGACCAGGAGAAGGGAGCCCCTTCGGATGGAAAGACATCAAGGAATGGTACGAGATGCTGATGGGACATTGCACCTATTTTCCAGAAGAGCTGAGAAGCGTCAAGTACGCTTATAACGCAGATCTGTACAACGCCCTGAATGACCTGAACAACCTGGTCATCACCAGGGATGAAAACGAGAAACTGGAATACTATGAGAAGTTCCAGATCATCGAAAACGTGTTTAAGCAGAAGAAAAAGCCTACACTGAAACAGATTGCTAAGGAGATCCTGGTCAACGAAGAGGACATCAAGGGCTACCGGGTGACAAGCACTGGAAAACCAGAGTTCACCAATCTGAAAGTGTATCACGATATTAAGGACATCACAGCACGGAAAGAAATCATTGAGAACGCCGAACTGCTGGATCAGATTGCTAAGATCCTGACTATCTACCAGAGCTCCGAGGACATCCAGGAAGAGCTGACTAACCTGAACAGCGAGCTGACCCAGGAAGAGATCGAACAGATTAGTAATCTGAAGGGGTACACCGGAACACACAACCTGTCCCTGAAAGCTATCAATCTGATTCTGGATGAGCTGTGGCATACAAACGACAATCAGATTGCAATCTTTAACCGGCTGAAGCTGGTCCCAAAAAAGGTGGACCTGAGTCAGCAGAAAGAGATCCCAACCACACTGGTGGACGATTTCATTCTGTCACCCGTGGTCAAGCGGAGCTTCATCCAGAGCATCAAAGTGATCAACGCCATCATCAAGAAGTACGGCCTGCCCAATGATATCATTATCGAGCTGGCTAGGGAGAAGAACAGCAAGGACGCACAGAAGATGATCAATGAGATGCAGAAACGAAACCGGCAGACCAATGAACGCATTGAAGAGATTATCCGAACTACCGGGAAAGAGAACGCAAAGTACCTGATTGAAAAAATCAAGCTGCACGATATGCAGGAGGGAAAGTGTCTGTATTCTCTGGAGGCCATCCCCCTGGAGGACCTGCTGAACAATCCATTCAACTACGAGGTCGATCATATTATCCCCAGAAGCGTGTCCTTCGACAATTCCTTTAACAACAAGGTGCTGGTCAAGCAGGAAGAGAACTCTAAAAAGGGCAATAGGACTCCTTTCCAGTACCTGTCTAGTTCAGATTCCAAGATCTCTTACGAAACCTTTAAAAAGCACATTCTGAATCTGGCCAAAGGAAAGGGCCGCATCAGCAAGACCAAAAAGGAGTACCTGCTGGAAGAGCGGGACATCAACAGATTCTCCGTCCAGAAGGATTTTATTAACCGGAATCTGGTGGACACAAGATACGCTACTCGCGGCCTGATGAATCTGCTGCGATCCTATTTCCGGGTGAACAATCTGGATGTGAAAGTCAAGTCCATCAACGGCGGGTTCACATCTTTTCTGAGGCGCAAATGGAAGTTTAAAAAGGAGCGCAACAAAGGGTACAAGCACCATGCCGAAGATGCTCTGATTATCGCAAATGCCGACTTCATCTTTAAGGAGTGGAAAAAGCTGGACAAAGCCAAGAAAGTGATGGAGAACCAGATGTTCGAAGAGAAGCAGGCCGAATCTATGCCCGAAATCGAGACAGAACAGGAGTACAAGGAGATTTTCATCACTCCTCACCAGATCAAGCATATCAAGGATTTCAAGGACTACAAGTACTCTCACCGGGTGGATAAAAAGCCCAACAGAGAGCTGATCAATGACACCCTGTATAGTACAAGAAAAGACGATAAGGGGAATACCCTGATTGTGAACAATCTGAACGGACTGTACGACAAAGATAATGACAAGCTGAAAAAGCTGATCAACAAAAGTCCCGAGAAGCTGCTGATGTACCACCATGATCCTCAGACATATCAGAAACTGAAGCTGATTATGGAGCAGTACGGCGACGAGAAGAACCCACTGTATAAGTACTATGAAGAGACTGGGAACTACCTGACCAAGTATAGCAAAAAGGATAATGGCCCCGTGATCAAGAAGATCAAGTACTATGGGAACAAGCTGAATGCCCATCTGGACATCACAGACGATTACCCTAACAGTCGCAACAAGGTGGTCAAGCTGTCACTGAAGCCATACAGATTCGATGTCTATCTGGACAACGGCGTGTATAAATTTGTGACTGTCAAGAATCTGGATGTCATCAAAAAGGAGAACTACTATGAAGTGAATAGCAAGTGCTACGAAGAGGCTAAAAAGCTGAAAAAGATTAGCAACCAGGCAGAGTTCATCGCCTCCTTTTACAACAACGACCTGATTAAGATCAATGGCGAACTGTATAGGGTCATCGGGGTGAACAATGATCTGCTGAACCGCATTGAAGTGAATATGATTGACATCACTTACCGAGAGTATCTGGAAAACATGAATGATAAGCGCCCCCCTCGAATTATCAAAACAATTGCCTCTAAGACTCAGAGTATCAAAAAGTACTCAACCGACATTCTGGGAAACCTGTATGAGGTGAAGAGCAAAAAGCACCCTCAGATTATCAAAAAGGGCTAAGAATTC

Example 35: Minimizing Off-Target Cleavage Using Cas9 Nickase and TwoGuide RNAs

Cas9 is a RNA-guided DNA nuclease that may be targeted to specificlocations in the genome with the help of a 20 bp RNA guide. However theguide sequence may tolerate some mismatches between the guide sequenceand the DNA-target sequence. The flexibility is undesirable due to thepotential for off-target cleavage, when the guide RNA targets Cas9 to aan off-target sequence that has a few bases different from the guidesequence. For all experimental applications (gene targeting, cropengineering, therapeutic applications, etc) it is important to be ableto improve the specificity of Cas9 mediated gene targeting and reducethe likelihood of off-target modification by Cas9.

Applicants developed a method of using a Cas9 nickase mutant incombination with two guide RNAs to facilitate targeted double strandbreaks in the genome without off-target modifications. The Cas9 nickasemutant may be generated from a Cas9 nuclease by disabling its cleavageactivity so that instead of both strands of the DNA duplex being cleavedonly one strand is cleaved. The Cas9 nickase may be generated byinducing mutations in one ore more domains of the Cas9 nuclease, e.g.Ruvc1 or HNH. These mutations may include but are not limited tomutations in a Cas9 catalytic domain, e.g in SpCas9 these mutations maybe at positions D10 or H840. These mutations may include but are notlimited to D10A, E762A, H840A, N854A, N863A or D986A in SpCas9 butnickases may be generated by inducing mutations at correspondingpositions in other CRISPR enzymes or Cas9 orthologs. In a most preferredembodiment of the invention the Cas9 nickase mutant is a SpCas9 nickasewith a D10A mutation.

The way this works is that each guide RNA in combination with Cas9nickase would induce the targeted single strand break of a duplex DNAtarget. Since each guide RNA nicks one strand, the net result is adouble strand break. The reason this method eliminates off-targetmutations is because it is very unlikely to have an off-target site thathas high degrees of similarity for both guide sequences (20 bp+2bp(PAM)=22 bp specificity for each guide, and two guides means anyoff-target site will have to have close to 44 bp of homologoussequence). Although it is still likely that individual guides may haveoff-targets, but those off-targets will only be nicked, which isunlikely to be repaired by the mutagenic NHEJ process. Therefore themultiplexing of DNA double strand nicking provides a powerful way ofintroducing targeted DNA double strand breaks without off-targetmutagenic effects.

Applicants carried out experiments involving the co-transfection ofHEK293FT cells with a plasmid encoding Cas9(D10A) nickase as well as DNAexpression cassettes for one or more guides. Applicants transfectedcells using Lipofectamine 2000, and transfected cells were harvested 48or 72 hours after transfections. Double nicking-induced NHEJ weredetected using the SURVEYOR nuclease assay as described previouslyherein (FIGS. 51, 52 and 53).

Applicants have further identified parameters that relate to efficientcleavage by the Cas9 nickase mutant when combined with two guide RNAsand these parameters include but are not limited to the length of the 5′overhang. Efficient cleavage is reported for 5′ overhang of at least 26base pairs. In a preferred embodiment of the invention, the 5′ overhangis at least 30 base pairs and more preferably at least 34 base pairs.Overhangs of up to 200 base pairs may be acceptable for cleavage, while5′ overhangs less than 100 base pairs are preferred and 5′ overhangsless than 50 base pairs are most preferred (FIGS. 54 and 55).

Example 36: In Vivo SaCas9 Project

The project started as Applicants wanted to further explore thediversity of the type II CRISPR/Cas system following the identificationof Streptococcus pyogenes (Sp) and Streptococcus thermophiles (St)CRISPR/Cas system as a functional genome engineering tool in mammaliancells.

By defining new functional type II CRISPR/Cas systems for application inmammalian cells, Applicants will potentially be able to find:

(1) CRISPR/Cas system with higher efficiency and/or specificity

(2) CRISPR/Cas system with different Protospacer Adjacent Motif (PAM)that allows the targeting of broader range of genomic loci

(3) CRISPR/Cas system with smaller size so Applicants could deliverythem in vivo in a single vector with mammalian viral delivery systemsuch as adeno-associated virus (AAV) vectors that have a packaging sizelimit (the current Sp or St system exceed this limit of 4.7 kb) andother desirable traits.

Identification and Design of Sa CRISPR/Cas System for In VivoApplication.

Applicants tested a new type II CRISPR/Cas system in Staphylococcusaureus (Sa) that works in vitro in dsDNA cleavage assay and identigied aputative PAM of NNGRRT. The components of this system are a Cas9 proteinfrom Sa, a guide CRISPR RNA with direct repeats (DR) from Sa that willform a functional guide RNA complex with tracrRNA from Sa. Thisthree-component system is similar to all other type II CRISPR/Cassystems. Hence, Applicants designed a two-component system, whereApplicants fused the Sa tracrRNA to the Sa guide CRISPR RNA via a shortstem-loop to form a chimeric guide RNA, exactly as Applicants did withthe Streptococcus pyogenes (Sp) CRISPR/Cas system. This chimeric guideRNA was able to support cleavage of dsDNA in vitro. Therefore,Applicants decided to clone the full two-component system: cas9 and thechimeric guide RNA, into an AAV vector to test its functionality inliving organisms.

Applicants chose the AAV system because it is a non-integrating,ssDNA-based, non-immunogenic mammalian virus that has broad-spectrum oftropism in different tissues/organs depending on the serontype that hasbeen shown to be safe for in vivo application and also support long-termexpression of transgene in living organisms.

Design of the initial AAV vector has (1) CMV promoter driving SaCas9protein with a single NLS and a HA epitope tag. (2) human U6 promoterdriving the chimeric RNA (see figures). These are placed in between twoInverted Terminal Repeats (ITRs) from the most-well studied AAV serotype2 that serve as the viral packaging signal.

The PAM sequence test on endogenous mammalian genome is as follows:SaCas9 target spacers were selected across multiple genes to coverdifferent potential PAM sequences. Different spacers were cloned intoU6-sgRNA (single-guide RNA) expression dsDNA cassette U6-sgRNAexpression dsDNA cassette were co-transfected into mammalian cells lines(293FT for human targets, N2a and Hepa for mouse targets). 72 hoursfollowing transfection, all genomic DNA were extracted and subjected tosurveyor nuclease assay. Run through TBE Page Gel to detect genomiccleavage. Quantify genomic DNA cleavage efficiency and plot.

Summary of Genome Cleavage Efficiency and other Statistics on All TestedTargets

SpCas9 PAM Targets Cleavaged Targets Percentage of Cleaved CumulativeCleavage Average Spacer GC Sequences Count Count Targets (%) Efficiency(%) Content (%) GAAA 1 1 100.0 5.4 65.0 GAAC 2 2 100.0 6.1 55.0 GAAG 8 8100.0 47.1 65.0 GAAT 9 8 88.9 138.4 66.1 GAGA 3 3 100.0 17.5 63.3 GAGC 66 100.0 44.2 60.0 GAGG 12 12 100.0 93.3 58.8 GAGT 44 20 45.5 434.0 58.9GGAA 2 2 100.0 4.7 50.0 GGAC 3 2 66.7 39.9 60.0 GGAG 12 9 75.0 38.9 59.6GGAT 20 10 50.0 186.2 59.0 GGGA 7 6 71.4 39.1 63.6 GGGC 11 9 81.8 70.365.5 GGGG 8 5 62.5 53.3 70.0 GGGT 45 18 40.0 402.3 56.2 Grand Total 196120 61.2 1618.6 59.4

Summary of Genome Cleavage Efficiency and other Statistics on All TestedTargets (cleaned up)

SaCas9 Cleavaged Percentage Cumulative Average Average GC PAM TargetsTargets of Cleaved Cleavage Cleavage Special Sequences Count CountTargets (%) Efficiency (%) Efficiency (%) Content (%) GAAA 1 1 100.0 5.45.4 65.0 GAAC 2 2 100.0 6.1 3.0 55.0 GAAG 8 8 100.0 47.1 5.9 65.0 GAAT 44 100.0 68.4 17.1 65.0 GAGA 2 2 100.0 12.5 6.3 67.5 GAGC 5 5 100.0 39.27.8 61.0 GAGG 11 11 100.0 88.3 8.0 58.2 GAGT 13 10 76.9 199.0 15.3 56.2GGAA 2 2 100.0 4.7 2.3 50.0 GGAC 3 2 66.7 39.9 13.3 60.0 GGAG 12 9 75.036.9 3.1 59.6 GGAT 13 9 69.2 151.2 12.4 58.8 GGGA 7 5 71.4 39.1 5.6 63.6GGGC 11 9 81.8 70.3 6.4 65.5 GGGG 8 5 62.5 53.3 6.7 70.0 GGGT 14 8 57.1182.3 13.0 54.6 Grand Total 116 92 79.3 1053.6 9.1 60.5

Results from the PAM test are shown in FIGS. 56-62. A comprehensive testof over 100 targets identified that the PAM for SaCas9 could bedescribed as NNGRR (but not the NNGRRT as indicated earlier).

PAM Test Summary: (1) NNGRR for general SaCas9 PAM—helpful for designnew targets, (2) Testing double-nickase with new targets, (3) NNGRGmight be more potent PAM?

Targets for demonstrating in vivo application and therapeutic potentialof the CRISPR/Cas system.

Mouse Pcsk9 gene. This gene is a key gene in regulating lipidmetabolism, the Pcsk9 protein plays a major regulatory role incholesterol homeostasis. Knock-down or disruption of this gene both innatural cases by human SNPs or in animal models, results in a reductionof LDL-receptor level and blood cholesterol level. Drugs that blockPCSK9 can lower cholesterol, so Pcsk9 has been shown to be a potent drugtarget for hypercholesterolemia, etc.

Mouse Hmgcr gene. This gene is another key gene in lipid metabolism, theHmgcr protein product is the rate-controlling enzyme of the mevalonatepathway, the metabolic pathway that produces cholesterol and otherisoprenoids. Knock-down or disruption of this gene has been shown toreduce blood cholesterol level, etc.

human SERPINA1 (human AAT) gene. SERPINA1 gene encodes the proteincalled Alpha-1 Antitrypsin (A1AT). It is a protease inhibitor belongingto the serpin superfamily. It protects tissues from enzymes ofinflammatory cells. In its absence due to genetic defect (mutations inthis gene), the inability to inhibit enzymes from inflammatory cellsleads to elasticity of the lungs, resulting in respiratory complicationssuch as emphysema, or COPD (chronic obstructive pulmonary disease) inadults and cirrhosis in adults or children. This is a disease in humancalled AAT deficiency. One of the most prevalent mutations that led tothis disease is PiZ allele, or the Z allele. This mutation is aglutamate to lysine mutation at position 342 of the human AAT gene(SPERINA1), and Applicants' target in this case target exactly thisgenomic locus in human genome. Applicants also designed a homologousrecombination (HR) template to correct his mutation so that whenco-deliver Sa CRISPR/Cas system and the HR template in AAV form in vivo,Applicants could correct this mutation in liver to treat this disease.

Test of CMV version of the AAV virus Design:

Applicants tested packaging the AAV virus with the CMV promoter versionof the vector. The goal is to demonstrate delivery of the Sa CRISPR/Cassystem in vivo, and then test if the expressed SaCas9 with its guidechimeric RNA could support genome engineering (cleavage of endogenousgenomic locus) in vivo.

Applicants chose to use liver as our target organ, and use a tail-veininjection procedure to delivery AAV into the living organism (mouse). Asprevious paper showed (see references), AAV8 is a AAV serotype thatsupport efficiency transduction of hepatocyte via tail vein injectionand also long-term expression of transgene following transduction.

Because heparin-column based purification yield fastest turnaround timeand highly purified virus, Applicants decided to try purify Applicants'AAV8 virus using heparin column. However, due to AAV2 has bestefficiency in binding to heparin column, other AAV serotypes were mixedwith AAV2 to produce ‘mosaic virus’ bearing both AAV2 and AAV8 capsidproteins in the viral particle to allow purification via heparin column.However, Applicants tested the combination of AAV2-AAV8 mosaic virus andit has poor binding to the heparin column. Hence, Applicants decided touse chloroform-PEG based purification method to purify pure AAV8 virusesfor Applicants' application.

Applicants purified AAV2/8 (serotype AAV8 virus packaged with AAV2packaging signal ITR) from all four constructs:

CMV-SaCas9-U6-chimeric-guide-RNA targeting mouse Pcsk9 gene codingregion. Target the start codon region within the first exon of Pcsk9 soApplicants could disrupt this gene.

CMV-SaCas9-U6-chimeric-guide-RNA targeting mouse Hmgcr gene codingregion. Target the start codon region within the first exon of Hmgcr soApplicants could disrupt this gene. Target a new site at the keyphosphorylation site (Serine872 in human) at the end of the gene withinthe last exon so Applicants could functionally disrupt the regulation ofHmgcr gene product activity.

CMV-SaCas9-U6-chimeric-guide-RNA targeting human SERPINA1 (human AAT)gene coding region. Target the Z allele site, i.e., the glutamate tolysine mutation at position 342 of the human AAT gene (SPERINA1).

CMV-GFP viruses as control viruses and also a reporter viruses. This isa virus bearing a CMV promoter driving expression of GFP reporter gene.So the green fluorescence could serve as indicator of liver celltransduction efficiency and also as marker for monitoring the expressionlevel and duration of the transgene. Applicants hope to use this toverify the AAV2/8 system Applicants are using.

Procedure:

Applicants cloned, amplified, and purified viral vectors as listedabove. Applicants validated all targets first in cultured mousehepatocytes or human 293FT cells for cleavage efficiency of targetgenomic loci. Applicants pick the best target, injected the AAV2/8 viralparticle via tail vein at a total of around 1E11 viral particle peranimal. Then Applicants: (1) sacrifice animal at different time point toobtain liver tissue for checking expression using fluorescent microscopeand immune-histochemistry, and also verifying genome engineering (genomeediting) using surveyor nuclease assay and genome sequencing. (2) takeblood samples from animal over time to check for phenotypic changes. (3)Applicants also use material from (1) and (2) to detect disruption oftarget gene expression with qPCR, ELISA, or western blot, or to detectlipid level change (blood cholesterol level for Pcsk9 and Hmgcr), serumenzyme level or other phenotypic change.

Results:

Surveyor results from in vitro screening and genome cleavage validationof all targets via surveyor assay. Time course analysis of cleavageefficiency from liver tissue in mice injected with AAV2/8 SaCas9(targeting Pcsk9) virus. Liver cell transduction and transgene (GFP)expression with AAV2/8 CMV-GFP: image from liver sections, Liver celltransduction and transgene (SaCas9) expression with AAV2/8 SaCas9viruses: image from liver sections. Surveyor results of gDNA extractedfrom liver tissue of mice injected with AAV2/8 SaCas9 (targeting Pcsk9)virus.

Viruses, Animals and Injection Parameters:

AAV2/8—CMV-SaCas9-Pcsk9-Target1

AAV2/8—CMV-EGFP-WPRE

Mouse—8 weeks, C57BL/6

Tail Vein Injection

Injection Volume: 100 ul of 1.0E12 (vp/ml) stock

Viral particle delivered: 1.0E11 total vp/mouse

Animal Processing and Data Collection

First time point 1 week. Then 2, 3, 4 wks. Total 4 time points.

Saline pefusion of AAV-SaCas9-Pcsk9 & AAV-EGFP injected mouse.

Blood collection from right atrium ˜100 ul.

Acute dissection of liver tissue, cut into smaller pieces, put into −80C storage for Surveyor & Protein analysis (X12 tubes) and for qPCR (RNAlater, ×4 tubes).

Use Qiagen DNA Extraction and QuickExtract for processing.

Use Sigma and Qiagen RNA extraction Kit for RNA analysis.

Use Cell Signaling Ripa buffer for protein extraction.

Time Course Assay for Cleavage of Liver Tissue by SaCas9 delivered viatail-vein injection of AAV2/8 virus

T1 = 1 weeks post tail vein injection Average Cleavage Tissue SampleCleavage Efficiency (%) T1-AAV-SaCas9- 6.19 5.49 Pcsk9-LiverTissue1T1-AAV-SaCas9- 5.31 Pcsk9-LiverTissue2 T1-AAV-SaCas9- 4.98Pcsk9-LiverTissue3

T2 = 2 weeks post tail vein injection Average Cleavage Tissue SampleCleavage Efficiency (%) T2-AAV-SaCas9- 11.26 9.74 Pcsk9-LiverTissue1T2-AAV-SaCas9- 4.27 Pcsk9-LiverTissue2 T2-AAV-SaCas9- 13.69Pcsk9-LiverTissue3

T3 = 3 weeks post tail vein injection Average Cleavage Tissue SampleCleavage Efficiency (%) T3-AAV-SaCas9- 14.15 13.10 Pcsk9-LiverTissue1T3-AAV-SaCas9- 12.74 Pcsk9-LiverTissue2 T3-AAV-SaCas9- 12.41Pcsk9-LiverTissue3

Re-Design the AAV Vector with Liver-Specific TBG Promoter System.

Because the genome cleavage efficiency form CMV version of SaCas9 virus(AAV2/8) was not very high, and also the GFP control reporter virus showthat this might be due to the CMV version virus did not support strongand long-term expression of the Sa CRISPR/Cas system. After looking intoliterature, I found a TBG promoter (Thyroxine-binding globulin), a verystrong promoter for specific expression of proteins in liver at highlevel. After cloning the TBG promoter obtained from addgene intoApplicants' own AAV vector, new batch of TBG version of the AAV2/8 viruswere made. The new TBG version virus includes the same set of targets asthe CMV version (Pcsk9, Hmgcr, human AAT, GFP), and additionally aRosa26 target that serves as a negative control (Rosa26 is a safe-harborgenomic locus in the human genome).

New Human SERPINA1 Target for Therapeutic Correction of human Alpha-1antitrypsin deficiency (AAT). Human AAT syndrome is a severe disorderresults from a single-base G-to-A mutation leading to amino acid changeGlu342Lys in the human SERPINA1 gene (Yusa, et al. Nature 2011).Applicants use CRISPR/Cas to target this gene and deliver in vivo withAAV2/8 into liver tissue, the relevant organ in human for this disease,to achieve gene therapy for this disorder. The test in FIG. 65 isscreening for functional CRISPR/Cas targets in human 293FT cells afterdelivery of SaCas9 and U6-sgRNA cassette targeting human SERPINA1 geneloci, followed by surveyor assay. Protocol: sgRNA-expressing dsDNAtargeting human SERPINA1 gene were co-transfected with SaCas9 plasmidinto human HEK 293FT cell line. Assay performed after 72 hourincubation. Genomic DNA were amplified and then subject to surveyornuclease assay. The image in FIG. 65 shows the gel analysis of 12 of thetotal 24 different spacer designs, the DNA Ladder is to the left.

For Applicants' therapeutic design, to achieve high efficiency ofcorrection, Applicants follow up on the closest targets to the human AATmutation (Z allele, GAG-AAG/Glu-Arg mutation) listed to the right, withspacer target No. 15 being the closest with highest efficiency.

Applicants' strategy is co-delivery of CRISPR/Cas system targeting thissite with a correction vector bearing the wild-type copy (non-mutated)of the SERPINA1 genomic region.

Genome Cleavage Efficiency SaCas9 Target Spacer (%) hSERPINA1-Spacer111.2 hSERPINA1-Spacer2 10.6 hSERPINA1-Spacer3 1.6 hSERPINA1-Spacer4 13.8hSERPINA1-Spacer5 30.2 hSERPINA1-Spacer6 34.2 hSERPINA1-Spacer7 39.3hSERPINA1-Spacer8 40.3 hSERPINA1-Spacer9 0.0 hSERPINA1-Spacer10 15.9hSERPINA1-Spacer11 19.4 hSERPINA1-Spacer12 0.0 hSERPINA1-Spacer13 30.8hSERPINA1-Spacer14 0.0 hSERPINA1-Spacer15 34.0 hSERPINA1-Spacer16 16.0hSERPINA1-Spacer17 27.9 hSERPINA1-Spacer18 12.9 hSERPINA1-Spacer19 18.8hSERPINA1-Spacer20 21.0 hSERPINA1-Spacer21 21.7 hSERPINA1-Spacer22 25.7hSERPINA1-Spacer23 26.4 hSERPINA1-Spacer24 17.0

Mouse Hmgcr New Targets targeting the phosphorylated serine residue(controls the activity of Hmgcr to regulate cholesterol synthesis andthe last exon). sgRNA-expressing dsDNA were co-transfected with SaCas9plasmid into Mouse Hepatocyte cell line. Assay performed after 72 hourincubation. Genomic DNA were amplified and then subject to surveyornuclease assay. Top-left image shows the gel analysis of 12 samples, foreach of the 6 spacer designs, two replica were placed next to each other(see FIG. 66). The DNA Ladder is to the left.

SaCas9 In Vivo Delivery via AAV2/8 with TBG version constructs for InVivo Genome Engineering.

Viruses, Animals and Injection Parameters: AAV2/8—TBG-EGFP-WPRE

AAV2/8—CMV-EGFP-WPRE

Mouse—8 weeks, C57BL/6

Tail Vein Injection

Injection Volume: 100 ul of 1.0E12 (vp/ml) stock

Viral particle delivered: 1.0E11 total vp/mouse.

FIG. 67 shows Acute dissected liver tissue from mouse injected with TBGversion vs. CMV version of EGFP (6 days post injection, GFP channelimage, 10×).

CMV vs. TBG promoter for in vivo delivery into mouse liver with AAV2/8.TBG has much stronger expression and transduction efficiency at the sametime point compared with CMV.

Apolipoprotein B (ApoB) are the primary apolipoproteins of chylomicronsand low-density lipoproteins (LDL), which is responsible for carryingcholesterol to tissues. Disruption of ApoB led to lower level ofcholesterol, potentially resulting in healthier heart conditions.

Example 37: Efficient In Vivo Genome Editing of Somatic Tissue Via Cas9

The RNA-guided endonuclease Cas9 from the microbial CRISPR system hasemerged as a versatile genome editing platform for eukaryotic cells.However, applications of Cas9 in mammalian somatic tissue in vivo haveremained challenging largely due to difficulties in gene delivery of theStreptococcus pyogenes Cas9 (SpCas9), the most commonly used Cas9 whoselarge molecular weight impedes packaging into viral vectors. Applicantshave identified six small Cas9 orthologs and their correspondingprotospacer adjacent motifs (PAM), which are optimized for mammaliangenome editing. In particular, Applicants have shown that Cas9 fromStaphylococcus aureus (SaCas9), which is 23% smaller than SpCas9, canedit the mammalian genome with high efficiency on par with SpCas9, andbe packaged along with its single-guide RNA (sgRNA) intoadeno-associated virus (AAV) as a single vector for delivery into adultmice. Applicants demonstrate targeting of the mouse liver and observed30% gene modification in vivo within 3 weeks of injection. Thisdemonstration of AAV-mediated Cas9 delivery to postnatal animals furtherexpands the potential of the system for interrogating basic biology,modeling human diseases, and advancing therapeutic development.

The CRISPR (clustered regularly interspaced short palindromicrepeats)-Cas system is a RNA-guided endonuclease system from bacteriaand archaea that provides adaptive immunity against exogenous nucleicacids. Of the three CRISPR-Cas classes, the Type II system has to dateattracted the most interest as a genome engineering platform because ofits relatively simple and well-characterized mechanism—a singleendonuclease (Cas9) and two small RNAs, the CRISPR RNA (crRNA) thatcontains the DNA-targeting guide sequence (spacer) and the auxiliarytrans-activating crRNA (tracrRNA), mediate cleavage of the target DNA(protospacer); this dual RNA complex has been further engineered into achimeric single-guide RNA (sgRNA). An additional requirement critical toCas9 activity is the presence of a protospacer adjacent motif (PAM) inthe target DNA, which differs among the CRISPR-Cas systems.

The ability to harness Cas9 for broad applications in vivo in somatictissue, while obviating the need for embryonic manipulation, would proveenormously useful for accelerating basic research and enabling clinicalapplications. One major challenge is the delivery of the Cas9 genomeediting system to animals. Adeno-associated virus (AAV) vectors areattractive candidates for efficient gene delivery in vivo because oftheir low immunogenic potential, reduced oncogenic risk from host-genomeintegration, and well-characterized serotype specificity. However, thelimited cargo size of ˜4.5 kb for optimal transgene delivery renders thepackaging of SpCas9 (˜4.2 kb) and appropriate control elements(promoter, polyA signal) difficult. While several smaller Cas9 orthologshave been used for mammalian genome editing, they are nonethelessrelatively limited in availability of targeting sequences due to therequirement for lengthier and more specific PAMs, and cannot matchSpCas9 in cleavage efficiency. This highlights the potential as well asthe need to further explore the ecological diversity of Type II CRISPRsystems for additional suitable Cas9s.

To identify a diverse set of small Cas9 proteins, Applicants selectedsix representative Cas9 orthologs from over 800 known Cas9s from GenBankand optimized their sequences for mammalian expression (FIG. 70a ).These Cas9s belong to the Type IIA and IIC subfamilies. Using thecharacteristic direct repeat motifs found within the CRISPR array,Applicants searched a 2-kb window flanking the CRISPR locus forpotential tracrRNAs that contained strong sequence homology to therepeats, at least two additional predicted stemloops, and aRho-independent transcriptional termination signal within 150-nt. Fromthese Applicants constructed sgRNA scaffolds for each ortholog (FIG. 70and Table 51). Since the full 3′ end of tracrRNA improves sgRNAabundance in cells and mediates interaction with Cas931, Applicantsincluded the full tracrRNA 3′ end for each ortholog. Applicants thencleaved a library of plasmids containing a fixed-sequence targetfollowed by a randomized 7-mer as PAM (5′-NNNNNNN) in an in vitro celllysate assay, and identified the putative PAMs by sequencing the targetsthat were successfully cleaved (FIG. 70b, c ). Applicants observed thatsimilar to SpCas9, the Cas9 orthologs cleaved targets 3 bp upstream ofPAM (FIG. 74). To validate the consensus PAMs from the library,Applicants subsequently cleaved a DNA template bearing the putative PAMsin a biochemical lysate reaction and showed that the sgRNA designs, incombination with the Cas9 orthologs, can indeed target sites bearingappropriate consensus PAMs, albeit with differing efficiencies (FIG. 70dand Table S2).

Having validated the activity of Cas9 orthologs using cell lysates,Applicants sought to test their ability to induce double stranded breaksin mammalian cells. Applicants co-transfected in human embryonic kidney(HEK 293FT) cells the Cas9 orthologs and their respective sgRNAstargeting endogenous human genomic loci with the appropriate PAMs.However, of the six Cas9 orthologs tested, only the Cas9 fromStaphyloccocus aureus (referred to as SaCas9) reproducibly yieldedindels by SURVEYOR assay (FIG. 75 and Table S3). Thus, Applicantsfocused on optimizing SaCas9 and sgRNA for application in in vivomammalian genome editing.

Although many Type II CRISPR systems share a common feature of having˜36-bp direct repeats and ˜30-bp spacers, previous studies have reporteddifferent lengths for spacer as well as direct repeat sequences in themature crRNA among different systems. Applicants therefore sought totest the optimal lengths of these two parameters for the SaCas9 sgRNA(FIG. 71a ). Applicants found that while a range of spacer or guidelength is tolerated for SaCas9, there is a marked decrease in cleavageefficiency when it is 18-nt or below (FIG. 71b ), in contrast to SpCas9where shorter sgRNA lengths can be used. Similarly, a range of lengthsfor direct repeat:tracrRNA antirepeat duplex is tolerated (FIG. 71c ).Based on these results, Applicants chose the shorter 20-nt guide, 14-bprepeat:antirepeat duplex sgRNA architecture for downstream applications.

Since there might be potential differences between the cell lysate andthe endogenous mammalian nuclei environment that may affect DNA cleavagespecificity, Applicants wanted to verify whether the in vitro5′-NNGRR(T) consensus PAM held for SaCas9 cleavage in mammalian cells.From SURVEYOR analysis of endogenous genome cleavage based on 116distinct genomic target sites, Applicants determined that SaCas9 couldefficiently cleave genomic targets with a 5′-NNGRR PAM, with norequirement for the T in the 6th position (FIG. 71d , Table S4). Onaverage, the 5′-GRR motif occurs in the human genome every 7.6-bp,allowing the SaCas9 to have a wide range of available targets (FIG. 76).

Among the Cas9 orthologs used for mammalian genome editing, SpCas9remains the best characterized in targeting specificity, withconsistently high editing efficiency across multiple cell types andspecies. For three targets in mouse hepatoma (Hepa1-6) cells, theediting efficiency of SaCas9 performed comparably with that of SpCas9(FIG. 71e ). Furthermore, Applicants assayed genomic off-target indelmutations at highly similar genomic sequences for both SaCas9 andSpCas9, targeting a common locus bearing an overlapping 5′-NGGRR PAM. At31 genome-wide loci with sequence similarity to intended target, SaCas9cleaved off-target sites with comparable activity as SpCas9 (FIG. 71f ,Table S5).

Having established and validated the optimal sgRNA architecture forSaCas9 in mammalian cells, Applicants sought to incorporate SaCas9 intoAAV vector for in vivo use. In AAV, the small size of SaCas9 (3.2 kb)leaves sufficient room for promoters of up to 600-bp in a dual-cassettedesign co-expressing SaCas9 and U6-driven sgRNA (FIG. 72a ). The abilityto apply Cas9 protein to modify endogenous loci in somatic tissues oradult animals enables rapid testing of gene function in the relevanttissue type and therapeutic applications for gene correction. Of theorgans targetable by AAV, the liver is particularly attractive fordemonstrating the feasibility and therapeutic potential of CRISPR-Casmediated in vivo genome engineering because of its accessibility byintravascular delivery and its central role in many metabolic pathwaysimportant for human disease. Applicants chose to target the mouse locusencoding proprotein convertase subtilisin/kexin type 9 (Pcsk9), anenzyme that is predominantly expressed in the liver and involved incholesterol homeostasis, whose reduction has shown promise in loweringthe risk of cardiovascular disease. It can be envisioned that othergenes expressed in the liver, including but not limited to e.g., ApoB;Angiopoeitin; HMGCR, etc., may be targeted by the methods disclosedherein.

Using AAV2/8, a highly efficient hepatotropic AAV serotype, Applicantsdelivered via tail-vein injection 8×10¹⁰ viral particles usingsingle-vector design containing a cytomegalovirus (CMV) promoter-drivenSaCas9 and a U6 promoter-driven sgRNA targeting Pcsk9 (FIG. 72a, b ).The percentage indel formation increased from approximately 5% at 1 weekto 28% at 11 weeks, demonstrating the in vivo editing capabilities ofSaCas9 and the single-vector design (FIG. 72c ). To further increase theefficiency of genome modification, Applicants screened additional guidestargeting Pcsk9 in Hepa1-6 cells (FIG. 77) and used a liver-specificthyroid-binding globulin (TBG) promoter to provide greater hepatocytespecificity and expression. After intravascular delivery of 2×10¹¹ viralparticles, Applicants observed indel formation in the liver ranging from11% at 1-week post injection to approximately 30% at 3 weeks (FIG. 72c-e). The Pcsk9 gene modification level remained consistent across samplesfrom multiple locations within the liver, suggesting that the deliverywas uniform throughout the target organ (FIG. 72d ). All mice survivedthe AAV injection and did not exhibit any signs of physical distress forthe entire duration of the experiment.

The small size and efficiency of the novel Cas9 ortholog from S. aureuspaves the way for rapid and versatile in vivo editing while maintainingtarget specificity through promoter and AAV serotype selection.Furthermore, the method of PAM identification described here presents ageneralizable approach to PAM identification amongst all Type II CRISPRsystems. While certain Cas9 orthologs are more readily adapted formammalian genome editing than others, SaCas9 cleaves endogenous targetsin cells with robust efficiencies similar to those of SpCas9 andadditionally exhibits a similar degree of specificity. However,additional studies are necessary to fully characterize the specificityof SaCas9 as well as the effects of prolonged Cas9 in vivo expression.

While the AAV-delivery of the Cas9 system is a promising step towardsgene therapy applications, the more immediate impact lies in theefficient interrogation of genetic contributions to both normal biologyand disease in animals beyond cell lines and transgenic models. Suchsomatic or postnatal genetic manipulation allows unprecedented spatialand temporal control of targeted gene modifications that may bedevelopmentally important or inadequately controlled by conditionalexpression systems, as well as the ability to simulate a gradualaccumulation of genetic mutations that could better model the naturalprogression of certain pathogenic processes. Lastly, viral vectormediated gene modification allows for significantly higher throughput ofstudying genetic variants of disease than transgenic animal generation,particularly in organisms with lengthy gestational and developmentalperiods. The in vivo opportunities made possible by the AAV delivery ofthe S. aureus Cas9 described here represents another piece of thecontinually expanding Cas9 genome engineering toolbox that promises toallow rapid advances across basic science, medical, and biotechnologyapplications.

Methods Summary

Human embryonic kidney (HEK 293FT) and mouse liver hepatoma (Hepa1-6)cell lines were maintained at 37° C. and 5% CO2 atmosphere, andtransfected with a total of 500 ng DNA per 120,000 cells usingLipofectamine 2000. C57BL/6 mice were injected at age 8-10 weeks viatail vein with AAV diluted in sterile phosphate buffered serum, pH 7.4.Extended descriptions of SURVEYOR and in vitro cleavage assays,computation methods, cell culture condition, AAV production andinjection, are provided below.

Cell Culture and Transfection.

Human embryonic kidney (HEK) 293FT (Life Technologies) and Hepa1-6(ATCC) cell lines were maintained in Dulbecco's modified Eagle's Medium(DMEM) supplemented with 10% FBS (HyClone), 2 mM GlutaMAX (LifeTechnologies), 100 U/ml penicillin, and 100 m/ml streptomycin at 37° C.with 5% CO₂ incubation.

Cells were seeded into 24-well plates (Corning) one day prior totransfection at a density of 240,000 cells per well, and transfected at70-80% confluency using Lipofectamine 2000 (Life Technologies) per themanufacturer's recommended protocol. For each well of a 24-well plate atotal of 500 ng DNA was used.

SURVEYOR Nuclease Assay for Genome Modification.

Transfected cells were incubated at 37° C. for 72 h before genomic DNAextraction using the QuickExtract DNA Extraction Solution (Epicentre).Pelleted cells were resuspended in QuickExtract solution and incubatedat 65° C. for 15 min, 68° C. for 15 min, and 98° C. for 10 min. Genomicliver DNA was extracted from tissue slices using dounce homogenizer(Sigma) with 100 ul DPBS (gibco). 10 ul of homogenized liver extract wasadded to 90 ul QuickExtract DNA Extraction Solution (Epicentre) andincubated as above.

The genomic region flanking the CRISPR target site for each gene was PCRamplified (Supplementary sequences) and products were purified usingQiaQuick Spin Column (Qiagen) following the manufacturer's protocol. 200ng total of the purified PCR products were mixed with 1 μl 10×Taq DNAPolymerase PCR buffer (Enzymatics) to a final volume of 10 μl, andsubjected to a re-annealing process to enable heteroduplex formation:95° C. for 10 min, 95° C. to 4° C. ramping at −0.5° C./s. Afterre-annealing, products were treated with SURVEYOR nuclease and SURVEYORenhancer S (Transgenomics) following the manufacturer's recommendedprotocol, and analyzed on 4-20% Novex TBE polyacrylamide gels (LifeTechnologies). Gels were stained with SYBR Gold DNA stain (LifeTechnologies) for 30 min and imaged with a Gel Doc gel imaging system(Bio-rad). Quantification was based on relative band intensities. Indelpercentage was determined by the formula, 100×(1−(1−(b+c)/(a+b+c))1/2),where a is the integrated intensity of the undigested PCR product, and band c are the integrated intensities of each cleavage product.

In Vitro Transcription and Cleavage Assay

Cas9 orthologs were human codon-optimized and synthesized by GenScript,and transfected into 293FT cells as described above. Whole cell lysatesfrom 293FT cells were prepared with lysis buffer (20 mM HEPES, 100 mMKCl, 5 mM MgCl2, 1 mM DTT, 5% glycerol, 0.1% Triton X-100) supplementedwith Protease Inhibitor Cocktail (Roche). T7-driven sgRNA wastranscribed in vitro using custom oligos (Supplementary Sequences) andHiScribe T7 In vitro Transcription Kit (NEB), following themanufacturer's recommended protocol. The in vitro cleavage assay wascarried out as follows: for a 20 μl i cleavage reaction, 10 μl i of celllysate was incubated with 2 μl cleavage buffer (100 mM HEPES, 500 mMKCl, 25 mM MgCl2, 5 mM DTT, 25% glycerol), 1 μg in vitro transcribed RNAand 200 ng EcoRI-linearized pUC19 plasmid DNA or 200 ng purified PCRamplicons from mammalian genomic DNA containing target sequence. After30 m incubation, cleavage reactions were purified using QiaQuick SpinColumns and treated with RNase A at final concentration of 80 ng/ul for30 min and analyzed on a 1% Agarose E-Gel (Invitrogen).

In Vitro PAM Screen

Rho-independent transcriptional termination was predicted using theARNold terminator search tool 1,2. For the PAM library, a degenerate7-bp sequence was cloned into a pUC19 vector. For each ortholog, the invitro cleavage assay was carried out as above with 1 μg T7-transcribedsgRNA and 400 ng pUC19 with degenerate PAM. Cleaved plasmids werelinearized by NheI, gel extracted, and ligated with Illumina proprietarysequencing adaptors. Barcoded and purified DNA libraries were quantifiedby Quant-iT PicoGreen dsDNA Assay Kit or Qubit 2.0 Fluorometer (LifeTechnologies) and pooled in an equimolar ratio for sequencing using theIllumina MiSeq Personal Sequencer (Life Technologies).

Computational Analysis

MiSeq reads were filtered by requiring an average Phred quality (Qscore) of at least 23, as well as perfect sequence matches to barcodes.For reads corresponding to each ortholog, the degenerate region wasextracted. All extracted regions were then grouped and analyzed withWeblogo3. For genome wide off target analysis, indel frequencies weredetermined by deep sequencing and analyzed as previously described4.

AAV Production & Delivery

Virus Production and Titration

For viral production, 293FT cells (Life Technologies) were maintained asrecommended by the manufacturer in antibiotic-free media (DMEM, highglucose with GlutaMax and Sodium Pyruvate, supplemented with 10% FBS,and a final concentration of 10 mM HEPES). For each vector, cells weregrown in at least ten 15 cm tissue culture dishes and incubated untilthey reach around 70%-80% confluence at 37° C. and 5% CO₂. Fortransfection of virus production plasmids, PEI “Max” (Polysciences) wasdissolved in water at 1 mg/mL and the pH of the solution was adjusted to7.1.

For transfection, 8 ug of pAAV8 serotype packaging plasmid, 10 ug ofpDF6 helper plasmid, and 6 ug of pAAV plasmid carrying the construct ofinterest were added to 1 mL of serum-free DMEM. 125 uL of PEI “Max”solution was then added to the mixture. The resulting final transfectionmixture was vortexed briefly and incubated at room temperature for 5 to10 seconds. After incubation, the mixture was added to 20 mL ofmaintenance media, mix well, and applied to each dish to replace the oldgrowth media. Cells were harvested between 48 h and 72 h posttransfection. Cells were scraped from the dishes and pelleted bycentrifugation. The AAV8 viral particle were then purified from thepellet according to previous published protocols.

Viruses were also produced by vector core facilities at University ofPennsylvania and Children's Hospital Boston, and titered by qPCR using acustomized TaqMan probe against the SaCas9 transgene to match in houseproduction.

Animal Injection and Processing

All mice were maintained at animal facility following IRB-approvedprotocols. AAV was delivered to at 8-10 week old C57/BL6 mice via tailvein injection. All dosages of AAV were adjusted to 100 uL or 200 uLwith sterile phosphate buffered serum, pH 7.4 (Gibco).

Tissue was harvested at the described time points post injection. Micewere anesthetized using Ketamine/Xylazine and subjected to transcardialperfusion with 30 ml PBS. The median lobe of liver was removed and fixedin 4% paraformaldehyde for histological analysis, while the remaininglobes were sliced in small blocks of size less than 1×1×3 mm3 and frozenat −80 C for subsequent genomic DNA extraction, or immersed in RNALater(Ambion) for RNA extraction.

In vivo animal studies (e.g., mice) for specificity, toxicity,phenotype, and tolerance are performed for each of the Cas9 orthologsusing known methods.

TABLE S1 List of Cas9 orthologs and predicted RNA components direct Cas9class repeat tracrRNA sgRNA P. lavamentivorans IIC GCUGCGGAUUAGCAAAUCGAGAGGCGGUCGCU GCUGCGGAUUGCGGGA UGCGGCCGUUUUCGCAAGCAAAUUGACCCCUU AAUCGCUUUUCGCAAG CUCUCGAUUGUGCGGGCUCGGCAUCCCAAGGUC CAAAUUGACCCCUUGU UGCUACUCUAGCUGCCGGUUAUUAUCGAAAAG GCGGGCUCGGCAUCCC (SEQ IDGCCCACCGCAAGCAGCGCGUGGGC AAGGUCAGCUGCCGGU NO: 208)CUUUUU (SEQ ID NO: 209) UAUUAUCGAAAAGGCC CACCGCAAGCAGCGCGUGGGCCUUUU (SEQ ID NO: 210) C. diphtheria IIC ACUGGGGUUAGUCACUAACUUAAUUAAAUAGA ACUGGGGUUCAGGAA CAGUUCUCAACUGAACCUCAGUAAGCAUUGGC ACUGAACCUCAGUAAG AAAACCCUGUCGUUUCCAAUGUUGAUUGCUCC CAUUGGCUCGUUUCCA AUAGACUUCGCCGGUGCUCCUUAUUUUUAAGG AUGUUGAUUGCUCCGC (SEQ ID GCGCCGGCUUUCUU (SEQ IDCGGUGCUCCUUAUUUU NO: 211) NO: 212) UAAGGGCGCCGGCUUU U (SEQ ID NO: 213)S. pasteurianus IIA GUUUUUGUA CUUGCACGGUUACUUAAAUCUUG GUUUUUGUACUCGAACUCUCAAGA CUGAGCCUACAAAGAUAAGGCUU AGAGCCUACAAAGAUA UUUAAGUAAUAUGCCGAAUUCAAGCACCCCAU AGGCUUUAUGCCGAAU CCGUAAAAC GUUUUGACAUGAGGUGCUUUUUCAAGCACCCCAUGUU (SEQ ID (SEQ ID NO: 215) UUGACAUGAGGUGCU NO: 214)UUU (SEQ ID NO: 216) N. cinerea IIC GUUGUAGCU AUUGUCGCACUGCGAAAUGAGAAGUUGAUGCUCCCAUUC CCCAUUCUC CCGUUGCUACAAUAAGGCCGUCU UCGAAAGAGAACCGUUAUUUCGCAG GAAAAGAUGUGCCGCAACGCUCU GCUACAAUAAGGCCGU UGCUACAAUGCCCCUUAAAGCUUCUGCUUUAA CUGAAAAGAUGUGCCG (SEQ ID GGGGCAUCGUUUAUUUCGGUUAACAACGCUCUGCCCCUU NO: 217) AAAUGCCGUCUGAAACCGGUUUU AAAGCUUCUGCUUUAU (SEQ ID NO: 218) AGGGGCAUCGUUUAU UUCGGUUAAAAAUGC CGUCUGAAACCGGUUUUUAGGUUUCAGACGGC AUUUU (SEQ ID NO: 219) S. aureus IIA GUUUUAGUAAUUGUACUUAUACCUAAAAUUAC GUUUUAGUACUCUGG CUCUGUAAUAGAAUCUACUAAAACAAGGCAAA AAACAGAAUCUACUA UUUAGGUAUAUGCCGUGUUUAUCUCGUCAACU AAACAAGGCAAAAUGC GAGGUAGAC UGUUGGCGAGAUUUUU (SEQCGUGUUUAUCUCGUCA (SEQ ID ID NO: 221) ACUUGUUGGCGAGAU NO: 220)UUU (SEQ ID NO: 222) C. lari IIC GUUUUAGUC AAUUCUUGCUAAAGAAAUUUAAAGUUUUAGUCUCUGAA UCUUUUUAA AAGAGACUAAAAUAAGUGGUUU AAGAGACUAAAAUAAAUUUCUUUA UUGGUCAUCCACGCAGGGUUACA GUGGUUUUUGGUCAU UGAUAAAAUAUCCCUUUAAAACCAUUAAAAUU CCACGCAGGGUUACAA (SEQ ID CAAAUAAACUAGGUUGUAUCAACUCCCUUUAAAACCAUU NO: 223) UUAGUUUUUU (SEQ ID NO: AAAAUUCAAAUAAAC 224)UAGGUUGUAUCAACU UAGUUUU (SEQ ID NO: 225) S. pyogenes IIA GUUUUAGAGGUUGGAACCAUUCAAAACAGCAU GUUUUAGAGCUAGAA CUAUGCUGUAGCAAGUUAAAAUAAGGCUAGUC AUAGCAAGUUAAAAU UUUGAAUGGCGUUAUCAACUUGAAAAAGUGGC AAGGCUAGUCCGUUAU UCCCAAAAC ACCGAGUCGGUGCUUUUUCAACUUGAAAAAGUG (SEQ ID (SEQ ID NO: 227) GCACCGAGUCGGUGCU NO: 226)UUU (SEQ ID NO: 228) S. thermophiles IIA GUUUUUGUACUUACACAGUUACUUAAAUCUUG GUUUUUGUACUCGAA CUCUCAAGACAGAAGCUACAAAGAUAAGGCUU AGAAGCUACAAAGAU UUUAAGUAACAUGCCGAAAUCAACACCCUGUCA AAGGCUUCAUGCCGAA CUGUACAAC UUUUAUGGCAGGGUGUUUUAUCAACACCCUGUCAU (SEQ ID (SEQ ID NO: 230) UUUAUGGCAGGGUGU NO: 229)UUU (SEQ ID NO: 231)

TABLE S2 Targets used for PAM validation in in vitro lysate reactionGene (SEQ ID (PCR Cas9 Consensus in vitro lysate targets (Dyrk1a) PAMNO:   ) amplicon) P. lavamentivorans NNNCATN TAATCACTATGGATCTTCTATACCATT 232 DYRK1A P. lavamentivorans NNNCATN TCTTGTAGGAGGAGAGACTTCAGCATG 233 DYRK1A C. diphtheriae NGGNNNN GGTGCAAGCCGAACAGATGA TGGACAG234 DYRK1A C. diphtheriae NGGNNNN TATCCTAAAGTTCTTATTTA AGGTTTG 235DYRK1A S. pasteurianus NNGTGAN TTAATTTATGAAAATCTCGT AGGTGAA 236 DYRK1AS. pasteurianus NNGTGAN ATGCCCCATTCACATCAGTA CAGTGAC 237 DYRK1AN. cinerea NNNNGAT GTGTTGAGTAACATATACCT GTTTGTA 238 DYRK1A N. cinereaNNNNGAT TAACTAACCAGGTAAGTTCA TGGAGTA 239 DYRK1A S. aureus NNGRRNNAATGATACAAACATTAGGAT ATGAATA 240 DYRK1A S. aureus NNGRRNNATGTCAAATGATACAAACAT TAGGATA 241 DYRK1A C. lari NNGGGNNGGTCACTGTACTGATGTGAA TGGGGCA 242 DYRK1A C. lari NNGGGNNCGGTCACTGTACTGATGTGA ATGGGGC 243 DYRK1A S. pyogenes NGGNNNNTGTCAAATGATACAAACATT AGGATAT 244 DYRK1A S. pyogenes NGGNNNNAACCTCACTTATCTTCTTGT AGGAGGA 245 DYRK1A S. thermophilus NNAGAAWCCAGGTRAGTTCATGGAGTA TCAGAAA 246 DYRK1A S. thermophilus NNAGAAWTAACATATACCTGTTTGTAG TTAGAAA 247 DYRK1A

TABLE S3 Targets used for ortholog activity test in HEK 293FT cell(SEQ ID Cas9 Consensus Targets PAM NO:   ) Gene Cell type indel (%)C. diphtheria NGGNNNN TCACCTCCAATGACTAGGGT GGGCAAC 248 EMX1 HEK 293FTN.D. C. diphtheria NGGNNNN TGACGGTGCAAGCCGAACAGATGA TGGACAG 249 DYRK1AHEK 293FT N.D. C. diphtheria NGGNNNN ACCTGGTGGGCGACGTGCTG GGGAGTC 250DYRK1A HEK 293FT N.D. C. diphtheria NGGNNNN ATGGAGCAGTCTCAGTCTTC GGGCACC251 DYRK1A HEK 293FT N.D. N. cinerea NNNNGAT GAATGAAAATGACGGTGCAAGCCGAACAGAT 252 DYRK1A HEK 293FT N.D. N. cinerea NNNNGATTTAATGGTATAGAAGATCCA TAGTGAT 253 DYRK1A HEK 293FT N.D. C. lari NNGGGNNTGTCACCTCCAATGACTAGG GTGGGCA 254 EMX1 HEK 293FT N.D. C. lari NNGGGNNCCATGGAGCAGTCTCAGTCT TCGGGCA 255 DYRK1A HEK 293FT N.D. C. lari NNGGGNNGCACCAGCATCGGCACAGTG GTGGGCA 256 DYRK1A HEK 293FT N.D. C. lari NNGGGNNCGACGGTCACTGTACTGATGTGAA TGGGGCA 257 DYRK1A HEK 293FT N.D.P. lavamentivorans NNNCATN CCGAGCAGAAGAAGAAGGGC TCCCATC 258 EMX1HEK 293FT N.D. P. lavamentivorans NNNCATN ATTTTAATCACTATGGATCTTCTATACCATT 259 DYRK1A HEK 293FT N.D. P. lavamentivorans NNNCATNCCAAAACTCGAATTCAACCT GGTCATA 260 DYRK1A HEK 293FT N.D.P. lavamentivorans NNNCATN TGCAGCACAGTTTCTTCAAG GAGCATA 261 DYRK1AHEK 293FT N.D. S. pasteurianus NNGTGAN GTTCTTAATTTATGAAAATCTCGT AGGTGAA262 DYRK1A HEK 293FT N.D. S. pyogenes NGGNNNN GAGTCCGAGCAGAAGAAGAAGGGCTCC 263 EMX1 HEK 293FT 33.3 S. pyogenes NGGNNNNTGACGGTGCAAGCCGAACAGATGA TGGACAG 264 DYRK1A HEK 293FT 3.0 S. pyogenesNGGNNNN ATCAGAAAAGAAAGAACAGC TGGAGTC 265 Sqle Hepa1-6 14.5 S. pyogenesNGGNNNN GCAACAACAAGATCTGTGGC TGGAATT 266 HmgCR Hepa1-6 13.5 S. pyogenesNGGNNNN TGTTCCCACAATAACTTCCC AGGGGTG 267 HmgCR Hepa1-6 11.6S. thermophiles NNAGAAW TGAGTAACATATACCTGTTTGTAG TTAGAAA 268 DYRK1AHEK 293FT 5.0 S. aureus NNGRRNN CAACCACAAACCCACGAGGG CAGAGTG 269 EMX1HEK 293FT 15.9 S. aureus NNGRRNN TAGGGTTAGGGGCCCCAGGC CGGGGTC 270 EMX1HEK 293FT 13.0 S. aureus NNGRRNN CCTCTAACTAACCAGGTAAGTTCA TGGAGTA 271DYRK1A HEK 293FT 6.7 S. aureus NNGRRNN TAAGAGAGTAGGCTGGTAGA TGGAGTT 272GRIN2B HEK 293FT 24.2 S. aureus NNGRRNN GAGTAGGCTGGTAGATGGAG TTGGGTT 273GRIN2B HEK 293FT 31.7 S. aureus NNGRRNN GTTGAAGATGAAGCCCAGAG CGGAGTG 274GRIN2B HEK 293FT 13.4 S. aureus NNGRRNN TGGATGCCCAGGATGGGGGT GAGAGTA 275GRIN2B HEK 293FT 18.7 S. aureus NNGRRNN AAAGAAAGAGCATGTTAAAA TAGGATA 276GRIN2B HEK 293FT N.D. S. aureus NNGRRNN TCAGACATGAGATCACAGAT GCGGGTG 277GRIN2B HEK 293FT 29.3 S. aureus NNGRRNN GATGCGGGTGATGATGCTCT TTGGGTC 278GRIN2B HEK 293FT 17.6 S. aureus NNGRRNN TCATGGCTACCAGTTCCACC CGGGGTA 279GRIN2B HEK 293FT 26.6 S. aureus NNGRRNN CCCGGGTGGAACTGGTAGCC ATGAATG 280GRIN2B HEK 293FT 26.2 S. aureus NNGRRNN CTTCCGACGAGGTGGCCATC AAGGATT 281GRIN2B HEK 293FT 7.6 S. aureus NNGRRNN CACCATCTCTCCGTGGTACC CCGGGTG 282GRIN2B HEK 293FT 18.2 S. aureus NNGRRNN ATCTCTTAGATACCAGCATC CAGGGTG 283Pcsk9 Hepa1-6 4.6 S. aureus NNGRRNN TCAATCTCCCGATGGGCACC CTGGATG 284Pcsk9 Hepa1-6 2.6 S. aureus NNGRRNN GCCCATCGGGAGATTGAGGG CAGGGTC 285Pcsk9 Hepa1-6 9.7 S. aureus NNGRRNN ACTTCAACAGCGTGCCGGAG GAGGATG 286Pcsk9 Hepa1-6 6.2 S. aureus NNGRRNN CCGCTGACCACACCTGCCAG GTGGGTG 287Pcsk9 Hepa1-6 8.3 S. aureus NNGRRNN TGGCAGGTGTGGTCAGCGGC CGGGATG 288Pcsk9 Hepa1-6 3.4 S. aureus NNGRRNN ATCAGAAAAGAAAGAACAGC TGGAGTC 289Sqle Hepa1-6 21.1 S. aureus NNGRRNN GCAACAACAAGATCTGTGGC TGGAATT 290HmgCR Hepa1-6 7.1 S. aureus NNGRRNN TGTTCCCACAATAACTTCCC AGGGGTG 291HmgCR Hepa1-6 9.5

TABLE S4 Targets used for PAM determination in mammalian cell lines(SEQ ID Cas9 Targets PAM NO:_) Gene Cell type indel (%) S. aureusGAGGACCGCCCTGGGCCTGG GGGGGT 292 Rosa26 Hepa1-6 9 S. aureusCACGAGGGGAAGAGGGGGCA GGGGAT 293 Rosa26 Hepa1-6 12 S. aureusCGCCCATCTTCTAGAAAGAC TGGGGT 294 Rosa26 Hepa1-6 16 S. aureusAGTCTTTCTAGAAGATGGGC GGGGGT 295 Rosa26 Hepa1-6 14 S. aureusGTGTGGGCGTTGTCCTGCAG GGGGGT 296 Rosa26 Hepa1-6 13 S. aureusTAGGGGCAAATAGGAAAATG GGGGGT 297 Rosa26 Hepa1-6 0 S. aureusCAAATAGGAAAATGGAGGAT GGGGGT 298 Rosa26 Hepa1-6 24 S. aureusAATGGAGGATAGGAGTCATC TGGGGT 299 Rosa26 Hepa1-6 17 S. aureusTCCTCATGGAAATCTCCGAG GCGGAT 300 Rosa26 Hepa1-6 17 S. aureusAGGAGATAAAGACATGTCAC GTGGAT 301 Rosa26 Hepa1-6 0 S. aureusCTAAGCAGGAGAGTATAAAC TCGGGT 302 Rosa26 HEK 293FT 0 S. aureusCTGTAGTAGGATCTAAGCAG GGGGGT 303 Rosa26 HEK 293FT 0 S. aureusCACTGTATTTCATACTGTAG TGGGGT 304 Rosa26 HEK 293FT 0 S. aureusCTGCAGAAGGAGCGGGAGAA ATOORT 305 Rosa26 HEK 293FT 17 S. aureusGAGTGTTGCAATACCTTTCT GGGGGT 306 Rosa26 HEK 293FT 17 S. aureusCCTGGACACCCCGTTCTCCT GTGGAT 307 AAVS1 HEK 293FT 5 S. aureusACAGCATGTTTGCTGCCTCC GGGGGT 308 AAVS1 HEK 293FT 13 S. aureusGTGGTCCCAGCTCGGGGACA CAGGGT 309 AAVS1 HEK 293FT 30 S. aureusCGGTTAATGTGGCTCTGGTT CTGGGT 310 AAVS1 HEK 293FT 35 S. aureusTGTCCCTAGTGGCCCCACTG TGGGGT 311 AAVS1 HEK 293FT 31 S. aureusTCCTTCCTAGTCTCCTGATA TTGGGT 312 AAVS1 HEK 293FT 34 S. aureusCCTGAAGTGGACATAGGGGC CCGGGT 313 AAVS1 HEK 293FT 0 S. aureusGAGAGATGGCTCCAGGAAAT GGGGGT 314 AAVS1 HEK 293FT 16 S. aureusTTGCTTACGATGGAGCCAGA GGGGGT 315 AAVS1 HEK 293FT 0 S. aureusGAGCCACATTAACCGGCCCT GGGGGT 316 AAVS1 HEK 293FT 32 S. aureusCACAGTGGGGCCACTAGGGA CGGGGT 317 AAVS1 HEK 293FT 27 S. aureusGACTAGGAAGGAGGAGGCCT GGGGGT 318 AAVS1 HEK 293FT 23 S. aureusGAATCTGCCTAACAGGAGGT GGGGGT 319 AAVS1 HEK 293FT 26 S. aureusTGGGGGTGTGTCACCAGATA GGGGGT 320 AAVS1 HEK 293FT 15 S. aureusCCCTGCCAAGCTCTCCCTCC CGGGGT 321 AAVS1 HEK 293FT 18 S. aureusCTGGGAGGGAGAGCTTGGCA GGGGGT 322 AAVS1 HEK 293FT 0 S. aureusCAGGGGGTGGGAGGGAAGGG GGGGGT 323 AAVS1 HEK 293FT 0 S. aureusGGTGGCTAAAGCCAGGGAGA CGGGGT 324 AAVS1 HEK 293FT 0 S. aureusTAGGGTTAGGGGCCCCAGGC CGGGGT 325 EMX1 HEK 293FT 0 S. aureusATGGGAAGACTGAGGCTACA TGGGGT 326 EMX1 HEK 293FT 0 S. aureusCATCAGGCTCTCAGCTCAGC CTGGGT 327 EMX1 HEK 293FT 0 S. aureusGTGGCTGCTCTGGGGGCCTC CTGGGT 328 EMX1 HEK 293FT 29 S. aureusGAAGCTGGAGGAGGAAGGGC CTGGGT 329 EMX1 HEK 293FT 8 S. aureusTCGATGTCACCTCCAATGAC TGGGGT 330 EMX1 HEK 293FT 15 S. aureusGCAAGCAGCACTCTGCCCTC GTGGGT 331 EMX1 HEK 293FT 8 S. aureusCAACCACAAACCCACGAGGG CGGGGT 332 EMX1 HEK 293FT 32 S. aureusAAGCCTGGCCAGGGAGTGGC CGGGGT 333 EMX1 HEK 293FT 7 S. aureusGCCTCCCCAAAGCCTGGCCA GGGGGT 334 EMX1 HEK 293FT 28 S. aureusGGCCAGGCTTTGGGGAGGCC TGGGGT 335 EMX1 HEK 293FT 24 S. aureusCAGGCTGAGCTGAGAGCCTG GTGGGG 336 EMX1 HEK 293FT 9 S. aureusCTCAACACTCAGGCTGAGCT GGGGGC 337 EMX1 HEK 293FT 9 S. aureusGCCTCAACACTCAGGCTGAG CTGGGG 338 EMX1 HEK 293FT 9 S. aureusCTGGGGCCTCAACACTCAGG CTGGGC 339 EMX1 HEK 293FT 8 S. aureusGAGGCCCCCAGAGCAGCCAC TGGGGC 340 EMX1 HEK 293FT 20 S. aureusGGAGGCCCCCAGAGCAGCCA CTGGGG 341 EMX1 HEK 293FT 21 S. aureusTGAGAAACTCAGGAGGCCCC CTGGGC 342 EMX1 HEK 293FT 15 S. aureusGGGGCACAGATGAGAAACTC GGGGGG 343 EMX1 HEK 293FT 10 S. aureusAGGGGCACAGATGAGAAACT CGGGGG 344 EMX1 HEK 293FT 2 S. aureusAGGGAGGGAGGGGCACAGAT GGGGGG 345 EMX1 HEK 293FT 5 S. aureusCCAGGGAGGGAGGGGCACAG GTGGGG 346 EMX1 HEK 293FT 3 S. aureusTTCACCTGGGCCAGGGAGGG GGGGGC 347 EMX1 HEK 293FT 1 S. aureusCTTCACCTGGGCCAGGGAGG GGGGGG 348 EMX1 HEK 293FT 8 S. aureusACCTTCACCTGGGCCAGGGA GGGGGG 349 EMX1 HEK 293FT 7 S. aureusCACCTTCACCTGGGCCAGGG GGGGGG 350 EMX1 HEK 293FT 6 S. aureusACCACACCTTCACCTGGGCC GGGGGG 351 EMX1 HEK 293FT 5 S. aureusACACCTTCACCTGGGCCAGG GGGGGG 352 EMX1 HEK 293FT 5 S. aureusCCACACCTTCACCTGGGCCA GGGGGG 353 EMX1 HEK 293FT 8 S. aureusAACCACACCTTCACCTGGGC CTGGGG 354 EMX1 HEK 293FT 6 S. aureusTTCTGGAACCACACCTTCAC CTGGGC 355 EMX1 HEK 293FT 7 S. aureusTGTACTTTGTCCTCCGGTTC TGGGGC 356 EMX1 HEK 293FT 2 S. aureusTTGTACTTTGTCCTCCGGTT CTGGGG 357 EMX1 HEK 293FT 2 S. aureusGGGAGCCCTTCTTCTTCTGC TCGGGC 358 EMX1 HEK 293FT 0 S. aureusGCGCCACCGGTTGATGTGAT GGGGGC 359 EMX1 HEK 293FT 2 S. aureusTGCGCCACCGGTTGATGTGA TGGGGG 360 EMX1 HEK 293FT 7 S. aureusATGCGCCACCGGTTGATGTG GTGGGG 361 EMX1 HEK 293FT 0 S. aureusCTCTCAGCTCAGCCTGAGTG TTGGGG 362 EMX1 HEK 293FT 11 S. aureusTTGAGGCCCCAGTGGCTGCT CTGGGG 363 EMX1 HEK 293FT 0 S. aureusTGAGGCCCCAGTGGCTGCTC TGGGGG 364 EMX1 HEK 293FT 0 S. aureusGAGGCCCCAGTGGCTGCTCT GGGGGC 365 EMX1 HEK 293FT 0 S. aureusCCCCTCCCTCCCTGGCCCAG GTGGGG 366 EMX1 HEK 293FT 4 S. aureusCCCAGGTGAAGGTGTGGTTC CTGGGC 367 EMX1 HEK 293FT 4 S. aureusGTGAAGGTGTGGTTCCAGAA CCGGGG 368 EMX1 HEK 293FT 0 S. aureusTGAAGGTGTGGTTCCAGAAC CGGGGG 369 EMX1 HEK 293FT 12 S. aureusAAGGTGTGGTTCCAGAACCG GGGGGC 370 EMX1 HEK 293FT 10 S. aureusGGAGGACAAAGTACAAACGG CGGGGG 371 EMX1 HEK 293FT 3 S. aureusCAAAGTACAAACGGCAGAAG CTGGGG 372 EMX1 HEK 293FT 2 S. aureusAAAGTACAAACGGCAGAAGC TGGGGG 373 EMX1 HEK 293FT 3 S. aureusAGTACAAACGGCAGAAGCTG GGGGGG 374 EMX1 HEK 293FT 3 S. aureusGTACAAACGGCAGAAGCTGG GGGGGG 375 EMX1 HEK 293FT 8 S. aureusACAAACGGCAGAAGCTGGAG GGGGGG 376 EMX1 HEK 293FT 3 S. aureusCAAACGGCAGAAGCTGGAGG GGGGGG 377 EMX1 HEK 293FT 4 S. aureusACGGCAGAAGCTGGAGGAGG GGGGGC 378 EMX1 HEK 293FT 26 S. aureusGGAGGAGGAAGGGCCTGAGT CCGGGC 379 EMX1 HEK 293FT 5 S. aureusAGGAAGGGCCTGAGTCCGAG CGGGGG 380 EMX1 HEK 293FT 13 S. aureusAAGGGCCTGAGTCCGAGCAG GGGGGG 381 EMX1 HEK 293FT 8 S. aureusGGCCTGAGTCCGAGCAGAAG GGGGGG 382 EMX1 HEK 293FT 1 S. aureusCTGAGTCCGAGCAGAAGAAG GGGGGC 383 EMX1 HEK 293FT 1 S. aureusTCAACCGGTGGCGCATTGCC GCGGGG 384 EMX1 HEK 293FT 7 S. aureusGGCCACTCCCTGGCCAGGCT TTGGGG 385 EMX1 HEK 293FT 0 S. aureusGCCACTCCCTGGCCAGGCTT TGGGGG 386 EMX1 HEK 293FT 0 S. aureusCCACTCCCTGGCCAGGCTTT GGGGGG 387 EMX1 HEK 293FT 5 S. aureusCACTCCCTGGCCAGGCTTTG GGGGGG 388 EMX1 HEK 293FT 7 S. aureusTGGCCAGGCTTTGGGGAGGC CTGGGG 389 EMX1 HEK 293FT 0 S. aureusGGCCTCCCCAAAGCCTGGCC GGGGGG 390 EMX1 HEK 293FT 5 S. aureusAGGCCTCCCCAAAGCCTGGC CGGGGG 391 EMX1 HEK 293FT 9 S. aureusTGTCACCTCCAATGACTAGG GTGGGC 392 EMX1 HEK 293FT 1 S. aureusGTGGGCAACCACAAACCCAC  GGGGGC 393 EMX1 HEK 293FT 5 S. aureusTGGTTGCCCACCCTAGTCAT TGGGGG 394 EMX1 HEK 293FT 1 S. aureusGTGGTTGCCCACCCTAGTCA TTGGGG 395 EMX1 HEK 293FT 1 S. aureusGGCCTGGAGTCATGGCCCCA CGGGGC 396 EMX1 HEK 293FT 5 S. aureusGAGTCATGGCCCCACAGGGC TTGGGG 397 EMX1 HEK 293FT 7 S. aureusGCCCCGGGCTTCAAGCCCTG TGGGGC 398 EMX1 HEK 293FT 0 S. aureusGGCCCCGGGCTTCAAGCCCT GTGGGG 399 EMX1 HEK 293FT 3 S. aureusCATTGCCACGAAGCAGGCCA GTGGGG 400 EMX1 HEK 293FT 16 S. aureusATTGCCACGAAGCAGGCCAA TGGGGG 401 EMX1 HEK 293FT 10 S. aureusTTGCCACGAAGCAGGCCAAT GGGGGG 402 EMX1 HEK 293FT 0 S. aureusTGCCACGAAGCAGGCCAATG GGGGGG 403 EMX1 HEK 293FT 15 S. aureusCCACGAAGCAGGCCAATGGG GGGGGC 404 EMX1 HEK 293FT 30 S. aureusGGGTGGGCAACCACAAACCC GCGGGG 405 EMX1 HEK 293FT 6 S. aureusGCTGCTGGCCAGGCCCCTGC GTGGGC 406 EMX1 HEK 293FT 3 S. aureusGAGTCCAGCTTGGGCCCACG CAGGGG 407 EMX1 HEK 293FT 6

TABLE S5Genome wide off-targets used for SaCas9 and SpCas9 specificity studyGenome-wide Forward Reverse SpCas9 SaCas9 Target off Mis- primingpriming indel indel  (SEQ ID # target site PAM matches site site (%) (%)NOS:_) On- TAGGGTTAGG CGGGG NA CACTGTGTCCT ATGAGAAACTC 12.88 13.60408-410 target GGCCCCAGGC CTTCCTGCC AGGAGGCCC 1 TAGGGTTAGG TTGAA 2AGGTTTCTGCC GCCCAGGAAAT 0.044 0.039 411-413 GTCCCCAGGT CATCCTTTCCCTAAAGGT 2 GAGGGTTAGG AGGGA 2 CCTACCAGCAG CATCGTAACCG 6.58 0.25 414-416GCCCCCAGGC GAAAGGACA AAAGGTCCA 3 TAAGGTTCTG AAGAA 3 CAGTGACTCACGGCGTTCCTAT 0.052 0.046 417-419 GGCCCCAGGC AGGGTCAGG TTCACAAGC 4AAGAGCTAGG CTGAG 3 AAAAGGGGGT CACCAGGCCTG 0.011 0.037 420-422 GGCCCCAGGCGGACTAGAGC AGAGAGAAG 5 TATGTTTCGG CGGAA 3 CACCTTCTGCA TCCAGACCCTCA 0.0230.006 423-425 GGCCCCAGGC TTCTGCCTA AAGACCAC 6 GAGGGGAAGG TGGAG 3GCAAAGACGG CAGAGCCTTCA 0.145 0.022 426-428 GGCCCCAGGC AAAGAGAAGCGAAATTCTCC 7 TAGGGGCAGG GGGGA 3 CCGTCTTGCTG ATACGGACGCT 0.466 0.052429-431 GGCACCAGGC TGTGACCTA CTGATCCTG 8 CCGGGTGAGT CTGGG 4 CGACGTGAAGGCCAGTYCGGAA 0.10 0.051 432-434 GGCCCCAGGC GAGAAATTCG CACTCTGA 9GAGGGTGAGT CAGAA 4 AACCTGGAGT CCACAGGGACT 0.032 0.010 435-437 GGCCCCAGGGGGGATGACAG CTGAGGAGA 10 CAGGTTTAGG CTGGG 4 TCTGTCCTCTG GCTTTGCAGAC 0.0250.024 438-440 GGCTCCAGGA GGAGCTGAC ACCATCTCA 11 TGGGTTTAGG GGGAG 4GGGCTCTGGCT CTGGGTGCTCTC 0.055 0.12 441-443 GGCCACAGGT TCTGAGAG TACGTGGT12 TGGGGTCAGG TGGGG 4 GGGGAGTGTT GCCAGGGCTCAC 0.031 0.047 444-446GGACCCAGGG TTCCTTCCAT AGTTATTG 13 TAGGGTTAGG CAGGG 4 CAGTCCTATGCGGGAACTGTAG 0.015 0.024 447-447 GGCCTGCAGC TCGGGAGAG CCTGTGGAG 14TGGGGTGAGG AGGAG 4 CAGAGGCTTCA TGGGGATATGC 0.13 0.15 450-452 GGCCCCGGCCGGAGGAAGG AACCCTTAG 15 GAGGATTAGG ATGAG 4 CTGGCAGGGG ATTCCGTCTGTC 0.0580.083 453-455 GTCACCAGGC AAGTCAAATA TGGAATGC 16 TGGGGCCAGG AGGGG 4CCCGTTCTCTC TGCACCAAGTA 0.009 0.004 456-458 GGCCGCAGGC TCCTTCCTCGCAGAGGTG 17 ACGGGTTAGG CTGAG 4 CCTCTCTGAGC TCTTGTTCTCCA 0.033 0.028459-461 GGACACAGGC CCAGTGTTC CCCCTCAG 18 GAGGGGCAGG TGGGG 4 GTCTGCTGGGCAGCTTTGTGG 0.044 0.054 462-464 GGGCCCAGGC ATTCTGGGTA CTCTGGAAT 19GAGCGTTGGG CAGGA 4 CTCGTGAGCAA GTGGAAACACG 0.066 0.062 465-467GGCCCCAGGA CGGGACTAT GTGCTCTTT 20 TAGAGTTAGG ATGAG 4 CAACCAAGATCAACTTGGTAAG 0.12 0.066 468-470 AGACCCAGGA AGGCAACAA TGCCCAGCA 21TGGGGAGGGG AGGGG 4 GGCCTCTGAAA CCCTGCTTTCTT 0.043 0.057 471-473GGCCCCAGGC TAACGTTGG CACTCCAG 22 AAGGGTTAGG TAGAG 4 GGACCCTGGGAAAGGGCAGAG 0.046 0.066 474-476 GGCCCAAAGG AACATTTTGT GAAAGAAGG 23GAGGCTGAGT CTGAG 4 CCAGTTTGAG GGGCTTAGGGA 0.11 0.092 477-479 GGCCCCAGGCGACAGTGGT CTCAGGAGA 24 TCGGGTGTGG CCGGG 4 CAAGAGAGGG GCTGCTGAGGG 0.0360.061 480-482 GGCTCCAGGC AGGATGCAAG ATGGAGTT 25 GAGGGTGAGT CTGGG 4CACAGACTCAG GCAGTGAAAGA 0.084 0.031 483-485 GGCCCCAGGA GCCATCTCAAGGCTAGATCC 26 TAGTGTTAGG AAGGG 4 CCTACAGCCAT CGAAGGGCTCA 0.0030 0.0040486-488 AGCTCCAGGG TGGACCCTA AACATCTTC 27 TAGGGTCAGG ATGGG 4 GTCAGTGCTGAGTGCCTCCTCT 0.015 0.005 489-491 GGCTCAAGGG ACACCTCACC TCCCACTC 28CAGGGATAGC AGGGG 4 TGCTAGGGTG AAATCCAGCAG 0.029 0.023 492-494 AGCCCCAGGCGGGAAATTCT AGCAGCAAT 29 TAGGGGTAGG AGGGG 4 ACAGAAGGTA TCTCTCTCTGCT 0.0740.058 495-497 GGGGCCATGC AGGGGGAAGG GCACCTCA 30 TGGGGGTAGG GAGAG 4ATACCTGGGG GTAGGCCACCT 0.015 0.015 498-500 GGTCCCAGGA GAACTGCTCTTGACCTCTG 31 CAGGCTTGGG AGGGG 4 TCTGAGAACA TCTTGGCCTCCT 0.009 0.013501-503 GGCCCCAGGT CCAGGAAGCA CACATAGG

Supplementary Sequences Italic: HA-tag Underlined: NLS sequencesParvibaculum lavamentivorans Cas9  (SEQ ID NO: 504)ATGTACCCATACGATGTTCCAGATTACGCT TCGCCGAAGAAAAAGCGCAAGGTCGAAGCGTCCATGGAGAGGATTTTCGGCTTTGACATCGGCACAACAAGTATCGGATTCAGCGTGATTGATTACAGTAGCACCCAGTCCGCAGGCAACATCCAGAGGCTGGGCGTGCGCATTTTCCCTGAGGCAAGGGACCCAGATGGGACCCCCCTGAACCAGCAGCGGAGACAGAAACGCATGATGAGGCGCCAGCTGCGACGGAGAAGGATTCGCCGAAAGGCACTGAATGAGACACTGCACGAAGCCGGCTTTCTGCCAGCTTACGGGTCTGCAGATTGGCCCGTGGTCATGGCCGACGAGCCTTATGAACTGCGGAGAAGGGGACTGGAGGAAGGCCTGAGTGCTTACGAGTTCGGACGGGCAATCTATCATCTGGCCCAGCACCGGCATTTTAAAGGCAGAGAACTGGAGGAATCCGATACACCCGACCCTGATGTGGACGATGAGAAGGAAGCCGCTAACGAGAGAGCAGCCACTCTGAAGGCCCTGAAAAATGAACAGACCACACTGGGAGCATGGCTGGCCCGCCGACCCCCTTCTGACCGCAAGCGAGGAATCCACGCCCATAGGAACGTGGTCGCTGAGGAGTTCGAGCGCCTGTGGGAAGTGCAGTCCAAGTTTCACCCCGCTCTGAAATCTGAGGAAATGCGGGCAAGAATCAGTGATACAATTTTCGCCCAGAGGCCTGTGTTTTGGCGCAAGAACACTCTGGGAGAGTGCAGATTCATGCCTGGCGAACCACTGTGTCCCAAGGGGTCCTGGCTGTCTCAGCAGCGGAGAATGCTGGAGAAACTGAACAATCTGGCTATCGCAGGCGGGAATGCTAGGCCACTGGATGCAGAGGAACGCGACGCCATTCTGAGTAAGCTGCAGCAGCAGGCCAGCATGTCCTGGCCAGGCGTGCGGTCAGCTCTGAAGGCACTGTACAAACAGAGAGGCGAGCCCGGGGCTGAAAAGAGCCTGAAATTCAACCTGGAGCTGGGAGGCGAATCCAAGCTGCTGGGAAATGCCCTGGAGGCTAAACTGGCAGATATGTTTGGCCCTGACTGGCCAGCTCACCCCCGAAAGCAGGAGATCCGGCACGCAGTGCATGAACGGCTGTGGGCTGCAGATTACGGCGAGACACCCGACAAGAAAAGAGTCATCATTCTGTCCGAGAAGGATCGAAAAGCTCATCGGGAAGCCGCTGCAAACTCTTTCGTGGCAGACTTTGGAATTACTGGCGAGCAGGCAGCTCAGCTGCAGGCCCTGAAGCTGCCAACCGGCTGGGAACCTTATAGCATCCCAGCACTGAACCTGTTCCTGGCCGAGCTGGAAAAGGGGGAGAGGTTTGGAGCCCTGGTGAATGGACCTGATTGGGAAGGCTGGAGGCGCACAAACTTCCCCCACCGCAATCAGCCTACTGGGGAGATCCTGGACAAGCTGCCAAGTCCCGCCTCAAAAGAGGAAAGGGAACGCATTAGCCAGCTGCGCAACCCAACCGTGGTCCGAACACAGAATGAGCTGAGAAAGGTGGTCAACAATCTGATCGGGCTGTATGGAAAACCCGATCGAATCCGGATTGAAGTGGGCCGGGACGTCGGGAAGTCCAAAAGAGAAAGGGAGGAAATCCAGTCTGGCATTCGACGGAACGAGAAGCAGAGAAAGAAAGCCACTGAAGATCTGATCAAAAACGGAATTGCTAATCCTAGCCGGGACGATGTGGAGAAGTGGATCCTGTGGAAAGAGGGCCAGGAAAGATGCCCATACACCGGCGACCAGATTGGCTTCAATGCCCTGTTTAGAGAAGGCAGATATGAGGTGGAACACATCTGGCCTCGCTCTCGAAGTTTTGATAACAGCCCAAGGAATAAGACACTGTGTCGCAAAGACGTGAACATCGAGAAGGGAAATAGGATGCCTTTCGAGGCATTTGGCCATGACGAAGATCGGTGGAGCGCCATCCAGATTAGACTGCAGGGCATGGTGTCAGCCAAAGGGGGAACTGGGATGAGCCCCGGAAAGGTCAAACGCTTCCTGGCTAAGACCATGCCTGAGGATTTTGCAGCCCGGCAGCTGAACGACACAAGATACGCTGCAAAGCAGATCCTGGCCCAGCTGAAAAGGCTGTGGCCAGACATGGGACCTGAGGCTCCAGTGAAGGTCGAAGCAGTGACTGGACAGGTCACCGCCCAGCTGCGCAAACTGTGGACTCTGAACAATATTCTGGCTGACGATGGGGAGAAAACCAGAGCAGATCACAGGCACCATGCCATCGACGCTCTGACAGTGGCCTGCACTCATCCTGGAATGACCAACAAGCTGAGCAGGTATTGGCAGCTGCGCGACGATCCACGAGCAGAGAAGCCAGCTCTGACTCCACCCTGGGATACCATCCGCGCCGACGCTGAGAAAGCCGTGTCTGAAATTGTGGTCAGTCACCGGGTGAGAAAGAAAGTCAGCGGCCCACTGCATAAGGAGACTACCTACGGCGATACAGGGACTGACATTAAGACCAAATCCGGCACATATAGACAGTTCGTGACCAGGAAGAAAATCGAGTCACTGAGCAAGGGGGAGCTGGATGAAATTCGCGACCCCCGAATCAAAGAAATTGTGGCAGCTCACGTCGCAGGACGAGGAGGCGACCCCAAGAAGGCCTTCCCTCCATACCCCTGTGTGTCTCCCGGAGGCCCTGAGATCCGGAAGGTCAGACTGACCAGTAAACAGCAGCTGAACCTGATGGCCCAGACAGGGAATGGATACGCTGACCTGGGCTCCAACCACCATATCGCAATCTACCGGCTGCCCGATGGGAAGGCCGACTTCGAGATTGTGTCACTGTTTGATGCTAGCAGAAGGCTGGCACAGAGAAATCCAATCGTGCAGAGGACACGAGCAGACGGAGCCAGCTTCGTCATGTCCCTGGCAGCCGGAGAGGCCATCATGATTCCCGAAGGCTCAAAGAAAGGGATCTGGATTGTGCAGGGAGTCTGGGCAAGCGGACAGGTGGTCCTGGAGAGGGACACCGATGCTGACCACTCTACAACTACCCGCCCTATGCCAAACCCCATCCTGAAGGACGATGCCAAGAAAGTGAGTATCGATCCTATTGGCCGAGTCCGGCCATCAAATGAC Corynebacter diphtheria Cas9  (SEQ ID NO: 505)ATGTACCCATACGATGTTCCAGATTACGCT TCGCCGAAGAAAAAGCGCAAGGTCGAAGCGTCCATGAAGTACCATGTCGGAATCGATGTCGGAACCTTTTCTGTGGGGCTGGCTGCTATTGAAGTGGATGACGCTGGAATGCCTATTAAGACCCTGAGTCTGGTGTCACACATTCATGACTCAGGACTGGATCCTGACGAGATCAAGAGCGCTGTGACCAGGCTGGCAAGCTCCGGAATCGCCCGGAGAACAAGGCGCCTGTACCGACGGAAGAGAAGGCGCCTGCAGCAGCTGGATAAGTTCATCCAGAGGCAGGGCTGGCCAGTGATCGAGCTGGAAGATTACAGCGACCCCCTGTATCCTTGGAAGGTGCGCGCCGAACTGGCCGCTTCTTATATTGCTGACGAGAAGGAACGGGGGGAGAAACTGAGTGTGGCTCTGAGACACATCGCAAGGCATCGCGGATGGAGGAACCCTTACGCCAAGGTGTCTAGTCTGTATCTGCCAGATGGCCCCTCAGACGCCTTCAAGGCTATTAGGGAGGAAATCAAACGCGCTAGCGGCCAGCCTGTGCCAGAGACTGCAACCGTCGGGCAGATGGTGACCCTGTGCGAACTGGGCACACTGAAGCTGCGAGGAGAGGGAGGAGTGCTGAGTGCACGGCTGCAGCAGTCAGATTACGCCCGCGAGATCCAGGAAATTTGTCGAATGCAGGAGATCGGCCAGGAACTGTATCGCAAGATCATTGACGTGGTGTTCGCAGCCGAGTCCCCAAAGGGCTCTGCCTCAAGCCGGGTGGGGAAAGATCCTCTGCAGCCAGGAAAGAACAGAGCACTGAAAGCCAGCGACGCTTTTCAGCGATACCGGATTGCTGCACTGATCGGCAATCTGAGAGTCAGGGTGGATGGGGAGAAGAGGATTCTGAGCGTGGAGGAGAAGAACCTGGTGTTCGACCACCTGGTGAATCTGACTCCAAAGAAAGAGCCCGAATGGGTGACCATCGCCGAAATTCTGGGCATCGATCGCGGGCAGCTGATCGGAACAGCTACTATGACCGACGATGGAGAGCGAGCAGGAGCCCGACCCCCTACACACGATACTAACAGAAGTATTGTGAACAGCCGGATCGCACCACTGGTCGACTGGTGGAAAACAGCTAGCGCACTGGAGCAGCACGCCATGGTGAAGGCACTGTCCAACGCCGAAGTCGACGATTTTGATTCTCCCGAGGGAGCAAAAGTGCAGGCATTCTTTGCCGATCTGGACGATGACGTCCACGCCAAGCTGGACAGCCTGCATCTGCCTGTGGGACGAGCAGCTTACTCCGAGGACACTCTGGTCAGACTGACCCGACGGATGCTGAGTGATGGGGTGGACCTGTATACCGCCCGGCTGCAGGAGTTCGGAATTGAACCTAGCTGGACCCCACCCACACCAAGAATCGGAGAGCCTGTCGGCAATCCAGCCGTCGACCGGGTGCTGAAAACAGTGAGCAGATGGCTGGAATCCGCAACAAAGACTTGGGGCGCCCCAGAGAGGGTCATCATTGAGCACGTGCGCGAAGGCTTCGTCACTGAGAAACGCGCTCGAGAAATGGATGGGGACATGAGAAGGCGCGCAGCCCGGAACGCCAAGCTGTTTCAGGAGATGCAGGAAAAGCTGAATGTGCAGGGCAAACCCAGTCGAGCCGATCTGTGGAGATACCAGTCAGTGCAGAGACAGAACTGCCAGTGTGCCTATTGCGGGTCCCCAATTACCTTTTCTAATAGTGAAATGGACCACATCGTGCCCAGAGCAGGGCAGGGATCCACCAACACAAGGGAGAATCTGGTCGCCGTGTGCCATCGCTGTAACCAGTCTAAGGGCAATACACCCTTCGCTATTTGGGCAAAAAACACTTCTATCGAAGGGGTCAGTGTGAAGGAGGCCGTGGAACGGACCAGACATTGGGTCACTGATACCGGCATGAGAAGCACTGACTTCAAGAAGTTCACCAAGGCTGTGGTCGAGCGGTTTCAGAGAGCAACAATGGATGAGGAAATCGACGCCAGAAGCATGGAATCCGTCGCCTGGATGGCTAATGAGCTGAGGAGCCGCGTGGCTCAGCACTTCGCATCCCATGGAACCACAGTCAGGGTGTACCGAGGCAGCCTGACAGCAGAGGCTCGACGGGCATCTGGGATCAGTGGAAAGCTGAAATTCTTTGATGGCGTGGGGAAGTCCAGGCTGGATAGAAGGCACCATGCTATTGACGCTGCAGTGATCGCATTCACCTCTGACTATGTGGCCGAAACACTGGCTGTCCGCTCAAACCTGAAACAGAGCCAGGCCCACCGACAGGAGGCTCCTCAGTGGAGAGAGTTCACCGGCAAGGATGCAGAGCATCGAGCAGCTTGGAGAGTGTGGTGCCAGAAGATGGAAAAACTGAGCGCCCTGCTGACCGAGGACCTGCGAGATGACCGGGTGGTCGTGATGTCTAACGTGCGACTGCGGCTGGGAAATGGCAGTGCCCACAAGGAAACCATTGGCAAACTGTCAAAGGTGAAACTGTCCTCTCAGCTGTCAGTCAGCGATATCGACAAAGCAAGTTCAGAGGCCCTGTGGTGTGCTCTGACCAGAGAGCCCGGATTCGATCCTAAGGAAGGCCTGCCCGCTAACCCTGAGAGACACATCAGGGTGAATGGGACACATGTCTACGCCGGGGACAATATTGGACTGTTTCCAGTGTCAGCAGGAAGCATCGCACTGAGGGGAGGATACGCAGAGCTGGGCAGCTCCTTCCACCATGCTCGCGTGTATAAAATTACTTCCGGCAAGAAACCCGCATTTGCCATGCTGAGGGTGTACACCATCGATCTGCTGCCTTATCGCAACCAGGACCTGTTTAGCGTGGAACTGAAGCCACAGACAATGTCCATGAGGCAGGCTGAGAAGAAACTGCGCGACGCTCTGGCAACTGGGAATGCAGAATATCTGGGATGGCTGGTCGTGGATGACGAGCTGGTCGTGGATACATCTAAGATTGCCACTGACCAGGTCAAAGCAGTGGAGGCCGAACTGGGGACTATCCGCCGATGGCGGGTGGATGGATTCTTTTCCCCCTCTAAACTGAGACTGAGGCCTCTGCAGATGTCCAAGGAGGGGATCAAGAAAGAGTCCGCTCCCGAACTGTCTAAAATCATTGACAGACCAGGATGGCTGCCCGCCGTGAACAAGCTGTTCTCTGATGGAAATGTCACCGTCGTGCGGAGAGACTCTCTGGGACGCGTGCGACTGGAGAGTACAGCCCACCTGCCTGTC ACTTGGAAGGTGCAGStreptococcus pasteurianus Cas9  (SEQ ID NO: 506)ATGTACCCATACGATGTTCCAGATTACGCT TCGCCGAAGAAAAAGCGCAAGGTCGAAGCGTCCATGACTAACGGCAAGATTCTGGGGCTGGACATTGGCATCGCAAGCGTGGGGGTGGGGATTATTGAGGCAAAAACTGGAAAGGTGGTGCATGCCAATTCCCGGCTGTTCTCTGCCGCTAACGCTGAGAACAATGCAGAACGGAGAGGGTTTAGGGGATCTAGGCGCCTGAATCGACGGAAGAAACACCGCGTGAAGCGAGTCCGGGATCTGTTCGAGAAATACGGAATCGTCACCGACTTTCGCAACCTGAATCTGAACCCTTATGAGCTGCGAGTGAAGGGCCTGACCGAACAGCTGAAAAACGAGGAACTGTTCGCAGCCCTGAGAACAATCTCTAAGAGAAGGGGGATTAGTTACCTGGACGATGCCGAGGACGATAGTACCGGATCAACAGACTATGCTAAGAGCATCGATGAGAATCGCCGACTGCTGAAAAACAAGACACCAGGCCAGATTCAGCTGGAGAGGCTGGAAAAGTACGGCCAGCTGCGCGGGAATTTCACCGTCTATGACGAGAACGGGGAAGCCCATCGCCTGATCAATGTGTTTAGTACATCAGATTACGAGAAAGAAGCACGGAAGATCCTGGAGACACAGGCCGACTACAACAAGAAAATCACAGCTGAGTTCATTGACGATTATGTGGAAATCCTGACCCAGAAACGAAAGTACTATCACGGCCCCGGGAACGAAAAGAGCCGGACTGACTACGGACGGTTCCGGACCGATGGGACCACACTGGAGAATATTTTCGGAATCCTGATTGGCAAGTGCAACTTTTACCCTGATGAATATCGAGCAAGCAAGGCCAGCTACACCGCACAGGAGTATAATTTCCTGAACGACCTGAACAATCTGAAGGTGAGCACCGAAACAGGGAAGCTGTCAACAGAGCAGAAAGAAAGCCTGGTGGAGTTTGCCAAGAATACTGCTACCCTGGGACCCGCTAAACTGCTGAAGGAGATCGCAAAAATTCTGGACTGTAAGGTGGATGAGATCAAAGGATACAGAGAGGACGATAAAGGCAAGCCAGATCTGCATACCTTCGAGCCCTATAGGAAACTGAAGTTTAATCTGGAAAGCATCAACATTGACGATCTGTCCCGCGAAGTGATCGACAAGCTGGCTGATATTCTGACTCTGAACACCGAGAGAGAAGGAATCGAGGACGCAATTAAGAGGAATCTGCCAAACCAGTTCACAGAGGAACAGATCAGCGAGATCATCAAGGTGCGGAAGAGCCAGTCCACTGCTTTCAATAAGGGCTGGCACTCTTTTAGTGCAAAACTGATGAACGAGCTGATCCCCGAACTGTACGCCACCTCCGACGAGCAGATGACAATTCTGACTCGGCTGGAAAAATTCAAGGTCAATAAGAAAAGCTCCAAAAACACAAAGACTATCGACGAGAAGGAAGTCACTGATGAGATCTACAATCCTGTGGTCGCCAAGAGCGTGAGACAGACCATCAAAATCATTAACGCTGCAGTCAAGAAATATGGCGACTTCGATAAGATCGTGATTGAAATGCCACGGGATAAAAATGCTGACGATGAGAAGAAGTTCATCGACAAGAGAAATAAGGAGAACAAGAAGGAAAAGGACGATGCCCTGAAAAGGGCCGCTTACCTGTATAATTCTAGTGACAAGCTGCCCGATGAGGTGTTCCACGGCAACAAGCAGCTGGAAACCAAAATCCGACTGTGGTATCAGCAGGGGGAGCGGTGCCTGTATAGTGGAAAGCCCATCTCAATTCAGGAGCTGGTGCATAACTCTAACAATTTCGAAATCGATCACATTCTGCCTCTGTCACTGAGCTTTGACGATAGTCTGGCCAATAAGGTGCTGGTCTACGCTTGGACAAACCAGGAGAAAGGCCAGAAAACCCCTTATCAGGTCATCGACTCCATGGATGCAGCCTGGTCTTTCAGGGAGATGAAGGACTACGTGCTGAAACAGAAGGGACTGGGCAAGAAAAAGCGCGACTATCTGCTGACTACCGAGAACATCGATAAGATTGAAGTGAAGAAGAAGTTCATCGAGAGGAATCTGGTGGATACTCGCTACGCATCTCGAGTGGTCCTGAACTCTCTGCAGAGTGCCCTGAGAGAGCTGGGGAAAGACACTAAGGTGTCTGTGGTCAGGGGACAGTTCACCAGTCAGCTGCGGAGAAAATGGAAGATCGATAAGAGCCGCGAGACATACCACCATCACGCAGTGGACGCCCTGATCATTGCTGCATCAAGCCAGCTGAAACTGTGGGAGAAGCAGGACAATCCCATGTTTGTGGATTATGGCAAGAACCAGGTGGTCGACAAACAGACTGGGGAGATCCTGTCCGTGTCTGACGATGAGTACAAGGAACTGGTGTTCCAGCCCCCTTATCAGGGCTTTGTGAATACCATCTCCTCTAAAGGGTTCGAGGACGAAATTCTGTTTAGCTACCAGGTGGATTCCAAATATAACCGGAAGGTCAGTGACGCAACCATCTACTCAACAAGAAAAGCCAAGATTGGCAAGGATAAGAAAGAGGAAACCTACGTGCTGGGAAAAATCAAGGACATCTACTCCCAGAATGGCTTCGATACCTTCATCAAGAAGTACAACAAAGATAAGACTCAGTTCCTGATGTATCAGAAGGACTCTCTGACATGGGAGAACGTGATCGAAGTCATTCTGAGGGACTACCCAACAACTAAGAAAAGCGAGGACGGCAAAAATGATGTGAAGTGCAACCCCTTTGAGGAATACAGGCGCGAGAATGGGCTGATCTGTAAGTATTCCAAGAAAGGGAAAGGAACTCCCATCAAGAGCCTGAAGTACTATGACAAGAAACTGGGGAACTGCATCGATATTACCCCAGAGGAATCACGCAATAAGGTCATCCTGCAGAGCATTAACCCTTGGCGAGCCGACGTGTACTTCAATCCAGAGACACTGAAGTACGAACTGATGGGCCTGAAATATTCAGATCTGAGCTTTGAAAAGGGCACTGGGAACTACCATATCAGCCAGGAGAAATATGACGCTATCAAAGAGAAGGAAGGAATTGGCAAGAAATCCGAGTTCAAGTTTACACTGTACCGCAACGACCTGATCCTGATCAAGGATATCGCCAGTGGCGAGCAGGAAATCTACAGATTCCTGTCAAGAACTATGCCCAATGTGAACCACTACGTCGAGCTGAAGCCTTACGACAAGGAAAAGTTCGATAACGTGCAGGAGCTGGTCGAAGCACTGGGAGAGGCAGATAAAGTGGGACGATGTATCAAAGGACTGAATAAGCCAAACATCAGCATCTACAAGGTGAGAACCGACGTCCTGGGAAACAAATATTTCGTGAAGAAAAAGGGCGACAAACCCAAGCTGGATTTTAAGAACAACAAG AAGNeisseria cinerea Cas9  (SEQ ID NO: 507) ATGTACCCATACGATGTTCCAGATTACGCTTCGCCGAAGAAAAAGCGCAA GGTCGAAGCGTCCATGGCTGCCTTCAAACCTAATCCTATGAACTACATCCTGGGCCTGGACATTGGAATCGCTTCTGTCGGGTGGGCTATCGTGGAAATCGACGAGGAAGAGAACCCTATCAGACTGATTGATCTGGGAGTCAGAGTGTTTGAAAGGGCAGAGGTGCCAAAGACCGGCGACTCCCTGGCCGCTGCACGGAGACTGGCTCGGTCTGTCAGGCGCCTGACACGACGGAGAGCACACAGGCTGCTGCGAGCTAGGCGCCTGCTGAAGAGAGAGGGCGTGCTGCAGGCCGCTGACTTCGATGAAAACGGCCTGATCAAGAGCCTGCCCAATACTCCTTGGCAGCTGAGAGCAGCCGCTCTGGACAGGAAGCTGACCCCACTGGAGTGGTCTGCCGTGCTGCTGCACCTGATCAAGCATCGCGGCTACCTGAGTCAGCGAAAAAATGAAGGGGAGACAGCAGATAAGGAGCTGGGAGCACTGCTGAAAGGAGTGGCCGACAACACTCATGCTCTGCAGACCGGCGATTTTAGGACACCCGCTGAGCTGGCACTGAATAAGTTCGAAAAAGAGAGTGGACACATTCGAAACCAGCGGGGCGACTATTCACATACCTTCAACCGCAAGGATCTGCAGGCCGAGCTGAATCTGCTGTTTGAAAAGCAGAAAGAGTTCGGGAATCCCCACGTGTCCGACGGGCTGAAAGAAGGAATCGAGACACTGCTGATGACTCAGAGGCCTGCACTGTCTGGCGATGCCGTGCAGAAGATGCTGGGGCATTGCACCTTTGAACCAACAGAGCCCAAGGCAGCCAAAAACACCTACACAGCCGAGAGGTTCGTGTGGCTGACAAAGCTGAACAATCTGCGCATCCTGGAACAGGGCAGTGAGCGGCCCCTGACTGACACCGAAAGAGCCACACTGATGGATGAGCCTTACAGGAAGTCTAAACTGACTTATGCCCAGGCTCGCAAGCTGCTGGACCTGGACGATACTGCCTTCTTTAAGGGCCTGAGGTACGGGAAAGATAATGCAGAAGCCAGCACCCTGATGGAGATGAAGGCCTATCACGCTATCTCCCGCGCCCTGGAAAAAGAGGGCCTGAAGGACAAGAAATCTCCCCTGAACCTGAGTCCTGAACTGCAGGATGAGATTGGGACCGCTTTTAGCCTGTTCAAGACTGACGAGGATATCACCGGACGCCTGAAAGACCGAGTGCAGCCCGAAATTCTGGAGGCACTGCTGAAGCACATCAGTTTTGATAAATTCGTGCAGATTTCACTGAAGGCCCTGCGACGGATCGTCCCTCTGATGGAGCAGGGCAATCGGTACGACGAGGCCTGCACCGAGATCTACGGAGATCATTATGGCAAGAAAAACACAGAAGAGAAAATCTATCTGCCCCCTATTCCTGCCGACGAGATCCGGAATCCAGTGGTCCTGAGAGCTCTGTCACAGGCAAGAAAAGTGATCAACGGAGTGGTCAGAAGGTACGGCAGCCCTGCTAGGATCCACATTGAAACCGCACGCGAAGTGGGAAAGTCCTTTAAAGACCGCAAGGAAATCGAGAAGCGACAGGAAGAGAATAGAAAAGATAGGGAAAAGTCTGCTGCAAAATTCAGGGAGTACTTTCCAAACTTCGTGGGCGAACCCAAGAGTAAAGACATCCTGAAGCTGCGCCTGTACGAGCAGCAGCACGGGAAGTGTCTGTATAGCGGAAAAGAAATTAACCTGGGCCGGCTGAATGAAAAGGGCTATGTGGAGATCGATCATGCACTGCCCTTTTCCAGAACATGGGACGATTCTTTCAACAATAAGGTCCTGGCTCTGGGGAGCGAGAACCAGAACAAGGGAAATCAGACTCCTTACGAATATTTCAACGGGAAGGACAATAGCCGAGAATGGCAGGAGTTTAAAGCCCGCGTGGAGACAAGCCGGTTCCCACGAAGCAAGAAACAGCGGATTCTGCTGCAGAAGTTTGACGAAGATGGATTCAAAGAGAGAAACCTGAATGACACCCGGTACATCAACAGATTTCTGTGCCAGTTCGTGGCTGATCACATGCTGCTGACCGGAAAGGGCAAACGCCGAGTCTTTGCAAGCAACGGCCAGATCACAAATCTGCTGAGGGGCTTCTGGGGGCTGCGGAAGGTGAGAGCCGAGAATGACCGCCACCATGCACTGGATGCCGTGGTCGTGGCTTGTTCCACTATTGCAATGCAGCAGAAGATCACCAGGTTTGTGCGCTATAAAGAGATGAACGCCTTCGACGGAAAGACAATTGATAAAGAAACTGGCGAGGTGCTGCACCAGAAGGCACATTTTCCTCAGCCATGGGAGTTCTTCGCCCAGGAAGTGATGATCCGGGTCTTTGGGAAGCCTGACGGAAAACCAGAGTTCGAAGAGGCCGATACCCCAGAAAAGCTGCGGACACTGCTGGCTGAAAAACTGAGCTCCAGACCCGAGGCAGTGCACAAGTACGTCACCCCCCTGTTCATTAGCAGGGCCCCTAATCGCAAAATGTCCGGGCAGGGACATATGGAGACTGTGAAATCAGCTAAGCGGCTGGACGAAGGCATCAGCGTGCTGAGAGTCCCACTGACCCAGCTGAAGCTGAAAGATCTGGAGAAGATGGTGAACCGGGAAAGAGAGCCCAAGCTGTATGAAGCTCTGAAAGCAAGACTGGAGGCCCACAAGGACGATCCAGCTAAAGCATTTGCCGAGCCCTTCTACAAATATGACAAGGCCGGCAATCGGACACAGCAGGTGAAGGCTGTCAGAGTGGAGCAGGTCCAGAAAACTGGGGTCTGGGTGCACAACCATAATGGAATTGCCGACAACGCTACAATCGTCCGGGTGGATGTGTTCGAGAAAGGCGGGAAGTACTATCTGGTGCCTATCTACTCCTGGCAGGTCGCCAAGGGAATCCTGCCAGATAGAGCTGTCGTGCAGGGCAAAGACGAAGAGGATTGGACTGTGATGGACGATTCTTTCGAGTTTAAGTTCGTCCTGTACGCAAACGACCTGATCAAGCTGACAGCCAAGAAAAATGAATTTCTGGGGTATTTCGTGTCACTGAACAGGGCAACTGGAGCCATCGATATTCGCACACATGACACTGATAGCACCAAGGGAAAAAACGGCATCTTTCAGTCTGTGGGCGTCAAGACCGCCCTGAGTTTCCAGAAATATCAGATTGACGAACTGGGGAAGGAGATCCGACCCTGTCGGCTGAAGAAACGACCA CCCGTGCGGStaphylococcus aureus Cas9  (SEQ ID NO: 508)ATGAAAAGGAACTACATTCTGGGGCTGGACATCGGGATTACAAGCGTGGGGTATGGGATTATTGACTATGAAACAAGGGACGTGATCGACGCAGGCGTCAGACTGTTCAAGGAGGCCAACGTGGAAAACAATGAGGGACGGAGAAGCAAGAGGGGAGCCAGGCGCCTGAAACGACGGAGAAGGCACAGAATCCAGAGGGTGAAGAAACTGCTGTTCGATTACAACCTGCTGACCGACCATTCTGAGCTGAGTGGAATTAATCCTTATGAAGCCAGGGTGAAAGGCCTGAGTCAGAAGCTGTCAGAGGAAGAGTTTTCCGCAGCTCTGCTGCACCTGGCTAAGCGCCGAGGAGTGCATAACGTCAATGAGGTGGAAGAGGACACCGGCAACGAGCTGTCTACAAAGGAACAGATCTCACGCAATAGCAAAGCTCTGGAAGAGAAGTATGTCGCAGAGCTGCAGCTGGAACGGCTGAAGAAAGATGGCGAGGTGAGAGGGTCAATTAATAGGTTCAAGACAAGCGACTACGTCAAAGAAGCCAAGCAGCTGCTGAAAGTGCAGAAGGCTTACCACCAGCTGGATCAGAGCTTCATCGATACTTATATCGACCTGCTGGAGACTCGGAGAACCTACTATGAGGGACCAGGAGAAGGGAGCCCCTTCGGATGGAAAGACATCAAGGAATGGTACGAGATGCTGATGGGACATTGCACCTATTTTCCAGAAGAGCTGAGAAGCGTCAAGTACGCTTATAACGCAGATCTGTACAACGCCCTGAATGACCTGAACAACCTGGTCATCACCAGGGATGAAAACGAGAAACTGGAATACTATGAGAAGTTCCAGATCATCGAAAACGTGTTTAAGCAGAAGAAAAAGCCTACACTGAAACAGATTGCTAAGGAGATCCTGGTCAACGAAGAGGACATCAAGGGCTACCGGGTGACAAGCACTGGAAAACCAGAGTTCACCAATCTGAAAGTGTATCACGATATTAAGGACATCACAGCACGGAAAGAAATCATTGAGAACGCCGAACTGCTGGATCAGATTGCTAAGATCCTGACTATCTACCAGAGCTCCGAGGACATCCAGGAAGAGCTGACTAACCTGAACAGCGAGCTGACCCAGGAAGAGATCGAACAGATTAGTAATCTGAAGGGGTACACCGGAACACACAACCTGTCCCTGAAAGCTATCAATCTGATTCTGGATGAGCTGTGGCATACAAACGACAATCAGATTGCAATCTTTAACCGGCTGAAGCTGGTCCCAAAAAAGGTGGACCTGAGTCAGCAGAAAGAGATCCCAACCACACTGGTGGACGATTTCATTCTGTCACCCGTGGTCAAGCGGAGCTTCATCCAGAGCATCAAAGTGATCAACGCCATCATCAAGAAGTACGGCCTGCCCAATGATATCATTATCGAGCTGGCTAGGGAGAAGAACAGCAAGGACGCACAGAAGATGATCAATGAGATGCAGAAACGAAACCGGCAGACCAATGAACGCATTGAAGAGATTATCCGAACTACCGGGAAAGAGAACGCAAAGTACCTGATTGAAAAAATCAAGCTGCACGATATGCAGGAGGGAAAGTGTCTGTATTCTCTGGAGGCCATCCCCCTGGAGGACCTGCTGAACAATCCATTCAACTACGAGGTCGATCATATTATCCCCAGAAGCGTGTCCTTCGACAATTCCTTTAACAACAAGGTGCTGGTCAAGCAGGAAGAGAACTCTAAAAAGGGCAATAGGACTCCTTTCCAGTACCTGTCTAGTTCAGATTCCAAGATCTCTTACGAAACCTTTAAAAAGCACATTCTGAATCTGGCCAAAGGAAAGGGCCGCATCAGCAAGACCAAAAAGGAGTACCTGCTGGAAGAGCGGGACATCAACAGATTCTCCGTCCAGAAGGATTTTATTAACCGGAATCTGGTGGACACAAGATACGCTACTCGCGGCCTGATGAATCTGCTGCGATCCTATTTCCGGGTGAACAATCTGGATGTGAAAGTCAAGTCCATCAACGGCGGGTTCACATCTTTTCTGAGGCGCAAATGGAAGTTTAAAAAGGAGCGCAACAAAGGGTACAAGCACCATGCCGAAGATGCTCTGATTATCGCAAATGCCGACTTCATCTTTAAGGAGTGGAAAAAGCTGGACAAAGCCAAGAAAGTGATGGAGAACCAGATGTTCGAAGAGAAGCAGGCCGAATCTATGCCCGAAATCGAGACAGAACAGGAGTACAAGGAGATTTTCATCACTCCTCACCAGATCAAGCATATCAAGGATTTCAAGGACTACAAGTACTCTCACCGGGTGGATAAAAAGCCCAACAGAGAGCTGATCAATGACACCCTGTATAGTACAAGAAAAGACGATAAGGGGAATACCCTGATTGTGAACAATCTGAACGGACTGTACGACAAAGATAATGACAAGCTGAAAAAGCTGATCAACAAAAGTCCCGAGAAGCTGCTGATGTACCACCATGATCCTCAGACATATCAGAAACTGAAGCTGATTATGGAGCAGTACGGCGACGAGAAGAACCCACTGTATAAGTACTATGAAGAGACTGGGAACTACCTGACCAAGTATAGCAAAAAGGATAATGGCCCCGTGATCAAGAAGATCAAGTACTATGGGAACAAGCTGAATGCCCATCTGGACATCACAGACGATTACCCTAACAGTCGCAACAAGGTGGTCAAGCTGTCACTGAAGCCATACAGATTCGATGTCTATCTGGACAACGGCGTGTATAAATTTGTGACTGTCAAGAATCTGGATGTCATCAAAAAGGAGAACTACTATGAAGTGAATAGCAAGTGCTACGAAGAGGCTAAAAAGCTGAAAAAGATTAGCAACCAGGCAGAGTTCATCGCCTCCTTTTACAACAACGACCTGATTAAGATCAATGGCGAACTGTATAGGGTCATCGGGGTGAACAATGATCTGCTGAACCGCATTGAAGTGAATATGATTGACATCACTTACCGAGAGTATCTGGAAAACATGAATGATAAGCGCCCCCCTCGAATTATCAAAACAATTGCCTCTAAGACTCAGAGTATCAAAAAGTACTCAACCGACATTCTGGGAAACCTGTATGAGGTGAAGAGCAAAAAGCACCCTCAGATTATCAAAAAGGGCAGCGGAGGCAAGCGTCCTGCTGCTACTAAGAAAGCTGGTCAAGCTAAGAAAAAGAAAGGATCCTACCCATACGATGTTCCAGATTACGCTT AACampylobacter lari Cas9  (SEQ ID NO: 509) ATGTACCCATACGATGTTCCAGATTACGCTTCGCCGAAGAAAAAGCGCAA GGTCGAAGCGTCCATGAGGATTCTGGGGTTTGACATTGGCATTAACAGCATCGGGTGGGCTTTTGTGGAGAACGACGAACTGAAGGACTGCGGAGTGCGGATCTTCACAAAGGCCGAGAACCCAAAAAATAAGGAAAGCCTGGCACTGCCCCGGAGAAATGCACGCAGCTCCAGGCGCCGACTGAAACGGAGAAAGGCCCGGCTGATCGCTATTAAGAGAATCCTGGCCAAAGAGCTGAAGCTGAACTACAAGGACTATGTCGCAGCTGATGGAGAGCTGCCAAAGGCCTACGAAGGATCCCTGGCATCTGTGTACGAGCTGCGGTATAAGGCCCTGACACAGAACCTGGAAACTAAAGATCTGGCCAGAGTGATCCTGCACATTGCTAAGCATAGGGGGTACATGAACAAGAACGAGAAGAAATCAAACGACGCTAAGAAAGGAAAGATCCTGAGCGCTCTGAAAAACAATGCACTGAAGCTGGAGAACTACCAGAGCGTGGGCGAATACTTCTACAAGGAGTTCTTTCAGAAATACAAGAAAAACACAAAGAACTTCATCAAGATCCGCAACACTAAGGATAATTACAACAATTGCGTGCTGTCTAGTGACCTGGAAAAAGAGCTGAAGCTGATCCTGGAAAAACAGAAGGAGTTCGGCTACAACTACTCTGAAGATTTCATCAACGAGATTCTGAAGGTCGCCTTCTTTCAGCGGCCCCTGAAGGACTTCAGTCACCTGGTGGGGGCCTGCACTTTCTTTGAGGAAGAGAAAAGGGCCTGTAAGAACAGCTACTCTGCCTGGGAGTTTGTGGCTCTGACCAAGATCATTAACGAGATCAAGAGCCTGGAGAAGATCAGCGGCGAAATTGTGCCAACCCAGACAATCAACGAGGTCCTGAATCTGATCCTGGACAAGGGGTCTATCACCTACAAGAAATTCAGAAGTTGTATCAATCTGCATGAGAGTATCAGCTTCAAGAGCCTGAAGTATGATAAAGAAAACGCCGAGAATGCTAAACTGATCGACTTCCGCAAGCTGGTGGAGTTTAAGAAAGCCCTGGGAGTCCACAGCCTGTCCCGGCAGGAACTGGATCAGATCTCCACTCATATCACCCTGATTAAGGACAACGTGAAGCTGAAAACCGTCCTGGAGAAATACAACCTGAGTAATGAACAGATCAACAATCTGCTGGAAATTGAGTTCAACGATTATATCAACCTGAGCTTCAAGGCCCTGGGAATGATTCTGCCACTGATGCGCGAGGGCAAACGATACGACGAGGCCTGCGAGATCGCCAATCTGAAACCTAAGACCGTGGACGAGAAGAAAGATTTCCTGCCAGCATTTTGTGATTCCATTTTCGCCCACGAGCTGTCTAACCCCGTGGTCAATAGGGCTATCAGCGAATACCGCAAGGTGCTGAACGCACTGCTGAAGAAATATGGAAAGGTCCACAAAATTCATCTGGAGCTGGCTCGCGACGTGGGCCTGTCCAAGAAAGCACGAGAGAAGATCGAAAAAGAGCAGAAGGAAAACCAGGCCGTGAATGCATGGGCCCTGAAGGAATGCGAGAATATTGGCCTGAAGGCCAGCGCAAAGAACATCCTGAAACTGAAGCTGTGGAAAGAACAGAAGGAGATCTGTATCTACTCCGGAAATAAGATCTCTATTGAGCACCTGAAAGATGAAAAGGCCCTGGAGGTGGACCATATCTACCCCTATTCTAGGAGTTTCGACGATTCTTTTATCAACAAAGTGCTGGTGTTCACCAAGGAAAATCAGGAGAAACTGAACAAGACACCTTTCGAGGCCTTTGGCAAGAATATTGAAAAATGGAGCAAGATCCAGACCCTGGCTCAGAACCTGCCATACAAGAAAAAGAATAAGATTCTGGACGAGAACTTCAAAGATAAGCAGCAGGAGGACTTTATCTCTCGAAATCTGAACGACACCCGGTATATCGCTACACTGATTGCAAAATACACAAAGGAGTATCTGAACTTCCTGCTGCTGAGCGAAAATGAGAACGCCAATCTGAAGAGTGGCGAAAAAGGGTCAAAGATCCACGTGCAGACTATTAGCGGGATGCTGACCTCCGTCCTGAGGCACACATGGGGGTTTGACAAAAAGGATCGCAACAATCATCTGCACCATGCACTGGATGCCATCATTGTGGCCTACAGTACAAATTCAATCATTAAGGCTTTCAGCGATTTCCGGAAAAACCAGGAGCTGCTGAAGGCCAGATTCTACGCTAAAGAACTGACTTCCGATAACTATAAACATCAGGTCAAGTTCTTTGAGCCTTTCAAGAGTTTTAGAGAAAAAATCCTGTCAAAGATCGACGAGATTTTCGTGTCCAAACCACCTCGAAAGCGAGCTAGGCGCGCACTGCACAAGGATACCTTTCATTCTGAGAACAAGATCATTGACAAGTGCAGCTACAACTCCAAGGAAGGCCTGCAGATTGCCCTGAGCTGTGGAAGAGTGAGGAAAATCGGCACTAAGTATGTCGAGAATGATACCATCGTGAGGGTCGACATTTTCAAAAAGCAGAACAAGTTTTACGCTATCCCAATCTACGCAATGGATTTTGCCCTGGGGATCCTGCCCAATAAGATCGTGATTACTGGAAAAGATAAGAACAATAACCCCAAACAGTGGCAGACCATTGACGAATCATACGAGTTCTGCTTTAGCCTGTATAAGAATGACCTGATCCTGCTGCAGAAAAAGAACATGCAGGAACCTGAGTTCGCCTACTATAACGATTTTTCAATCAGCACATCAAGCATTTGTGTGGAGAAACACGACAACAAGTTCGAAAATCTGACTAGCAACCAGAAGCTGCTGTTTTCCAATGCAAAAGAGGGCTCTGTGAAGGTCGAAAGTCTGGGGATCCAGAACCTGAAAGTGTTCGAGAAGTACATCATTACCCCCCTGGGAGATAAAATTAAGGCTGACTTTCAGCCTCGAGAAAACATCAGCCTGAAAACCAGTAAAAAGTATGGCCTGAGG

Primers

(SEQ ID Gene Surveyor primer F Surveyor primer R NOS:_) DYRK1AGGAGCTGGTCTGTTGGAGAA TCCCAATCCATAATCCCACGTT 510-511 GRIN2BGCATACTCGCATGGCTACCT CTCCCTGCAGCCCCTTTTTA 512-513 EMX1CCATCCCCTTCTGTGAATGT GGAGATTGGAGACACGGAGA 191-192 SqleTGTAATCAGGAGCCGTTGGG ACTGACGCTTCTAAGCCACC 514-515 HmgCRAAGTGGCAAGCACCGTGTTA AGCGTTCAAACAAGGACCCA 516-517 Pcsk9 ATGAGCCGTCTAATGCGTGG AGTACTCACCCACAGACCCG 518-519 (target 1) Pcsk9  CAGGCGTCCAGTACCCACAC ATCACCCCAACCCCAAAGCA 520-521 (targets 2-7) AAVS1CCCCTTACCTCTCTAGTCTGTGC CTCAGGTTCTGGGAGAGGGTAG 522-523 Rosa26CTTGCTCTCCCAAAGTCGCT CCAATGCTCTGTCTAGGGGT 524-525

Example 38: ApoB Genotypic and Phenotypic Change Seen In Vivo withGuides and SaCas9 Delivered Intravenously to the Liver Using an AAVVector and a Liver-Specific Cas9 Promoter

In this example, inter alia:

-   -   AAV2/8 is a Liver-targeting adenoviral vector;    -   TBG is a liver-specific promoter and is used here to drive        expression of SaCas9;    -   U6 is used here to drive expression of the sgRNA (guide);    -   ApoB is a lipid metabolism gene. It can be said to be the        “gold-standard” in liver delivery, and is widely used in mouse        models of obesity    -   “Target1 through Target 4” means that 4 targets within ApoB were        chosen, of which

Targets 1 and three (T1 and T3) were the most useful;

-   -   Delivery through expression from a viral vector as seen here is        an improvement over Anderson/Yin's (NBT 2884) use of        hydrodynamic delivery as the delivery method, because        hydrodynamic delivery requires several mls of fluid to be        injected which is stressful on the murine body and can be fatal.        Hydrodynamic delivery is well suited for delivery of plasmid        (naked) DNA, whereas Applicants have shown that packaging the        guide and Cas9 sequences within a viral delivery vector is        preferable in terms of greatly increased efficiency. Indeed,        only relatively small volumes need to be introduced, and this        can be done intravenously (i.v.), which is likely to be much        more acceptable therapeutically.    -   What was particularly encouraging was that not only was a        genotypic change seen in a “gold-standard” gene for liver such        as ApoB, but phenotypic changes were also recorded. Previous        work with PCSK9 had shown genotypic, but not phenotypic changes,        so the phenotypic changes seen with ApoB validate the        plausibility of CRISPR delivery to, and its ability to effect        phenotypic change in, the Liver. This is in combination with the        more therapeutically acceptable means of delivery (i.v. compared        to hydrodynamic delivery). As such, viral delivery of CRISPR        (guide and Cas9) is preferred, especially intravenously).    -   Targets include: PCSK9, HMGCR, APOB, LDLR, ANGPTL3, F8, F9/FIX,        MT, FAH, HPD, TAT, ATP7B, UGT1A1, OTC, ARH

Material and Methods

Viruses and Injection Parameters

Constructs used: -AAV2/8-TBG-SaCas9-U6-sgRNA (Apob-Targetl throughTarget

-   -   4).

In vitro testing: all induced cleavage of Apob locus at 10%-15%efficiency in Hepa cells.

In vivo results: Mouse—8 weeks, C57BL/6 (2 animals each time point andwith 1 animal as saline-injected wild type control)

Tail Vein Injection:

Injection Volume: 100 ul of 0.8E12 vp/ml (vp=viral particle)

Viral particle delivered: 0.8E11 total vp/animal

Tissue Processing and Data Collection

Tissue Processing and Data Collection Occurred as Follows:

First time point ˜1 wk (8 days). Second time point ˜4 wks.

Saline perfusion followed by acute dissection of liver tissue.

(A) Half liver put into −80 C storage for Surveyor & qPCR & Western Blotprotein analysis (X12 tubes/animal).

(B) Half liver put into Cryoprotectant and flash-freeze for cryostatprocessing. Cryosections were subjected to H&E and Oil Red staining.

QuickExtract and Surveyor assays were used to detect and quantify indelsfrom 2 pieces of liver per animal.

Results

In vivo Indel Assessment

The figures show in vivo indel assessment for the ApoB guide (targets)over time (up to 4 weeks post-injection). FIG. 78 A shows that guide(target) 1 induced the highest percentage of indels in ApoB. Targets 2and 4 showed little of no effect, in the sense that they resulted inonly none or very poor indel formation, whilst Target 3 showed someactivity. FIG. 78 B shows the results of a Surveyor nuclease gel assayfor indel formation efficiency, 4 weeks post-injection.

Target 1 can be seen to have almost 9% indel formation, representingsignificant levels of target locus

Phenotype Change Shown with 2 of the 4 Guides Designed to Target

Phenotypic changes were seen with two of the three guides used (targets1 and 3), as seen in FIG. 57B, which shows oil red staining to detecthepatic lipid accumulation phenotype in vivo following AAV-Cas9-sgRNAdelivery. The red patches of oil shown accumulating in the 2 Figures onthe left, targets 1 and 3, show that ApoB has been disrupted and arecompared to the control, bottom right. Apob gene has been disrupted as aresult of Cas9-induced targeted genomic cleavage, giving rise to thisphysiological/phenotypic change Target 2 showed no noticeable differenceover the control and target 4 is not shown. This oil red O staining isan assay where the fats in liver are visualized through histologicalstaining. This stain is used frequently in research to assess the amountof fats in liver. In clinical practice, the Oil Red O stain is mainlyordered on frozen sections of liver biopsy specimens to assess theamount of fat in the liver during liver transplantation and otherprocedures. For a protocol and information on this aspect of theExamples, mention is made of: Mehlem et al, “Imaging of neutral lipidsby oil red O for analyzing the metabolic status in health and disease,”Nature Protocols 8, 1149-1154(2013); Maczuga et al., “Therapeuticexpression of hairpins targeting apolipoprotein B100 induces phenotypicand transcriptome changes in murine liver,” Gene Therapy (2014) 21,60-70; Koornneef et al, “Apolipoprotein B Knockdown by AAV-deliveredshRNA Lowers Plasma Cholesterol in Mice,” Molecular Therapy (2011) 19 4,731-740; Tadin-Strapps et al., “siRNA-induced liver ApoB knockdownlowers serum LDL-cholesterol in a mouse model with human-like serumlipids,” Journal of Lipid Research Volume 52, 1084-1097 (2011). Thescale bar in the figure represents 20 microns.

Example 39: SaCas9 Optimization Experiments

The following were investigated: Guide Length Optimization; Intron Test;H1 promoter; D10A Double-nickase Test; Additional Length/DN Test.

SaCas9 Guide Length Test:

To determine sgRNA guide lengths: 20 vs. 21 vs. 22 bp as well the effectof a ‘G’ at the start (5′ end) of the guide. Mention is made of FIG. 80:

Target sites:

A1: AAVS1

E1: EMX1

T1, T2, . . . : Numbering of target sites

TGC, GTC, . . . : Base composition at position 23, 22, 21 nts from5′-end of PAM

The experiment of this Example is performed by: 1. Select targets usingNNGRR as PAM within two gene of interest, AAVS1 and EMX1. 2.Synthesizing oligos corresponding to the targets, but vary the length ofthe guide sequence part within the sgRNA from 20, to 21, to 22. 3. Usethe oligos to create sgRNA expression cassette and co-transfect into HEK293FT cell line with plasmids expressing the SaCas9 protein. 4. 72 hourspost transfection, cells were harvested and then analyzed by Surveyorassay to detect indels. 5. Indel formation frequency induced by Cas9were then calculated and summarized in the figures herewith.

FIG. 80 shows that 21 nts/base pairs (bp), represented by the grey barsis the optimal spacer length, at least compared to 20 or 22 base pairs(represented by the black and the white bars, respectively) across arange of targets and within two different genes (AAVS1 and EMX1). Thetargets and genes are not thought be important, merely representative.As such, it appears that 21nts or base pairs is optimal for good length,especially in or as to SaCas9. FIG. 80 also shows that a G nt at the 5′end of the guide/target sequence is may be advantageous, e.g., for theU6 promoter.

Intron Test

This experiment set out to test whether a guide sequence could beinserted into the Cas9 intronic sequence.

The following construct was used. Note the presence of the guide RNA(sgRNA) within the intron (between the Cas9 N′ and C′ terminal exons).

CMV-SaCas9(N-term)-Intron(sgRNA)-SaCas9(C-term)

The construct was expressed in Hepa cells.

Each intron was tested with 2 different guides: Pcsk9 and Hmgcr sgRNA.

A total of 9 constructs shown: three EBV1 three EBV2 and three ADV:

Lanes 1-3: show EBV1-152 (EBV based, 152 bp intron 1 from EBV genome)

Lanes 4-6: show EBV2 (EBV based, intron from the W repeat of EBV genome)

Lanes 7-9: show ADV (Adenoviral based intron, similar origin as Kiani etal., “CRISPR transcriptional repression devices and layered circuits inmammalian cells,” Nature Methods doi:10.1038/nmeth.2969 Published online5 May 2014 and Nissim et al, “Multiplexed and Programmable Regulation ofGene Networks with an Integrated RNA and CRISPR/Cas Toolkit in HumanCells,” Volume 54, Issue 4, p698-710, 22 May 2014; DOI: dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.molce1.2014.04. 022).

Within each group of design, the three constructs corresponding to threedifferent insertion site of sgRNA within the intron.

ADV-design 3

The results are shown in FIG. 81. These results provide proof ofprinciple of successful packaging of a guide sequence into a SaCas9intron is certainly possible. The sgRNA bearing the guide sequence isinserted within a synthetic intron derived from Adenovirus, and thenthis entire intron-sgRNA cassette is inserted into the SaCas9 gene.Introns can be inserted anywhere within the SaCas9 gene withoutsignificantly disrupting the normal expression of the SaCas9 protein.Multiple introns with sgRNAs can be inserted into different positionswithin the SaCas9 gene Positioning is flexible and this broad approachis advantageous including in the following two ways:

Size minimisation allows for the total number of bp or nts in theconstruct to be reduced.

Multiplexing allows for greater degrees of multiplexing (co-delivery ofmultiple guides) as ‘space’ is always an issue here too. As guides don'tnecessarily need a specific promoter, one or more guides can similarlybe packaged into a/the Cas9 intron.

The foregoing text uses ‘a/the’ because the as discussed above, a numberof synthetic introns can be introduced into Cas9. It may be advantageousto insert the sgRNA into a position close but at least 5-15 bp to the 5′end of the intron and also before the branch point of the intron. Someof the intron spacer sequence between the 5′ splice donor site and thebranch point in the middle of the intron may be deleted if the skilledperson wishes to so do. That this was achieved in a Cas9, especiallySaCas9 may be surprising, including because the sgRNA structure isdifferent between Sa and Sp.

For now, ADV are preferred, but this approach has broad applicabilityacross a range of viruses and Cas9s (Sa, Sp, etc).

H1 Promoter Tests

This experiment set out to investigate alternative promoters to the U6promoter.

A) full-length H1

The following constructs were made:

CMV-SaCas9 with original H1 promoter driving one sgRNA (eitherPcsk9-Target201 or Hmgcr-NewTarget5)

As can be seen in FIG. 82, the full-length H1 promoter (grey bar) isstill weaker than U6 promoter (black bar), as the U6 shows increasedindel percentage formation for each target tested.

B) Double H1 Promoter Test (Short H1)

The following constructs were made:

TBG-SaCas9 with two short H1 promoters driving two sgRNAs(Pcsk9-Target201 and Hmgcr-NewTarget5) simultaneously with the Doubleshort H1 promoter used in the same orientation and in oppositeorientations.

As can be seen in FIG. 83, short H1 promoter is weaker than thefull-length H1.

SaCas9 Nickase Test (Using the D10A Mutant)

This experiment looked at the distance between the 5′ ends of two guidesequences in a construct and then measured this in relation to thecleavage efficiency of the D10A SaCAs9 double nickase. The targets werefor the Human AAT1 gene. These tests were done with 20 bp+G guidescloned into plasmids.

Optimal results were shown between −5 and +1 bp (5′ to 5′), see FIG. 84.

Example 40: In Vivo Interrogation of Gene Function in the MammalianBrain Using CRISPR-Cas9

This work presents the following main points: First demonstration ofsuccessful AAV-mediated Cas9 delivery in vivo as well as efficientgenome modification in post-mitotic neurons. Development of a nucleartagging technique which enables easy isolation of neuronal nuclei fromCas9 and sgRNA-expressing cells. Demonstration of application towardRNAseq analysis of neuronal transcriptome. Integration ofelectrophysiological studies with Cas9-mediated genome perturbation. Anddemonstration of multiplex targeting and the ability to study genefunction on rodent behavior using Cas9-mediated genome editing.

Transgenic animal models carrying disease-associated mutations areenormously useful for the study of neurological disorders, helping toelucidate the genetic and pathophysiological mechanism of disease¹.However, generation of animal models that carry single or multiplegenetic modifications is particularly labor intensive and requirestime-consuming breeding over many generations. Therefore, to facilitatethe rapid dissection of gene function in normal and disease-relatedbrain processes we need ability to precisely and efficiently manipulatethe genome of neurons in vivo. The CRISPR-associated endonuclease Cas9from Streptococcus pyogenes (SpCas9) has been shown to mediate preciseand efficient genome cleavage of single and multiple genes inreplicating eukaryotic cells, resulting in frame shiftinginsertion/deletion (indel) mutations^(2, 3). Here, we integrateCas9-mediated genome perturbation with biochemical, sequencing,electrophysiological, and behavioral readouts to study the function ofindividual as wells as groups of genes in neural processes and theirroles in brain disorders in vivo.

Discussion

Adeno-associated viral (AAV) vectors are commonly used to deliverrecombinant genes into the mouse brain⁴. The main limitation of the AAVsystem is its small packaging size, capped at approximately 4.5 kbwithout ITRs⁵, which limits the amount of genetic material that can bepackaged into a single vector. Since the size of the SpCas9⁶ is already4.2 kb, leaving less than 0.3 kb for other genetic elements within asingle AAV vector, we designed a dual-vector system that packages SpCas9(AAV-SpCas9) and sgRNA expression cassettes (AAV-SpGuide) on twoseparate viral vectors (FIG. 89a ). While designing the AAV-SpCas9vector, we compared various short neuron-specific promoters as well aspoly adenylation signals to optimize SpCas9 expression. For our finaldesign we chose the mouse Mecp2 promoter (235 bp, pMecp2)⁷ and a minimalpolyadenylation signal (48 bp, spA)⁸ based on their ability to achievesufficient levels of SpCas9 expression in cultured primary mousecortical neurons (FIG. 89-c). To facilitate immunofluorescenceidentification of SpCas9-expressing neurons, we tagged SpCas9 with aHA-epitope tag. For the AAV-SpGuide vector, we packaged an U6-sgRNAexpression cassette as well as the green fluorescent protein (GFP)-fusedwith the KASH nuclear trans-membrane domain⁹ driven by the humanSynapsin I promoter (FIG. 85a ). The GFP-KASH fusion protein directs GFPto the outer nuclear membrane (FIG. 89c,d ) and enablesfluorescence-based identification and purification of intact neuronalnuclei transduced by AAV-SpGuide.

To test the delivery efficacy of our dual-vector delivery system, wefirst transduced cultured primary mouse cortical neurons in vitro andobserved robust expression by AAV-SpCas9 and AAV-SpGuide (FIG. 89e ),with greater than 80% co-transduction efficiency (FIG. 89e ).Importantly, compared with un-transduced neurons, expression of SpCas9did not adversely affect the morphology and survival rate of transducedneurons (FIG. 89c,f ).

Having established an efficient delivery system, we next sought to testSpCas9-mediated genome editing in mouse primary neurons. Whereas SpCas9has been used to achieve efficient genome modifications in a variety ofdividing cell types, it is unclear whether SpCas9 can be used toefficiently achieve genome editing in post-mitotic neurons. For ourinitial test we targeted the Mecp2 gene, which plays a principal role inRett syndrome), a t_(y)pe of autism spectrum disorder. MeCP2 protein isubiquitously expressed in neurons throughout the brain but nearly absentin glial cells^(11, 12) and its deficiency has been shown to beassociated with severe morphological and electrophysiological phenotypesin neurons, and both are believed to contribute to the neurologicalsymptoms observed in patients with Rett syndrome¹³⁻¹⁶. To target Mecp2,we first designed several sgRNAs targeting exon 3 of the mouse Mecp2gene (FIG. 90a ) and evaluated their efficacy using Neuro-2a cells. Themost efficient sgRNA was identified using the SURVEYOR nuclease assay(FIG. 90b ). We chose the most effective sgRNA (Mecp2 target 5) forsubsequent in vitro and in vivo Mecp2 targeting experiments.

To assess the editing efficiency of our dual-vector system in neurons,we transduced primary mouse cortical neurons at 7 days in vitro (7 DIV,FIG. 91a ) and measured indel rate using the SURVEYOR nuclease assay 7days post transduction (FIG. 91b ). Of note, neuron cultureco-transduced with AAV-SpCas9 and AAV-SpGuide targeting Mecp2 showed upto 80% reduction in MeCP2 protein levels compared to control neurons(FIG. 91c,d ). One possible explanation for the observed discrepancybetween relatively low indel frequency (˜14%) and robust proteindepletion (˜80%) could be that mere binding by SpCas9 at the target sitemay interfere with transcription, which has been shown in E. coli^(17, 18). We investigated this possibility using a mutant of SpCas9with both RuvC and HNH catalytic domains inactivated^(19, 20) (D10A andH840A, dSpCas9). Co-expression of dSpCas9 and Mecp2-targeting sgRNA didnot reduce MeCP2 protein levels (FIG. 91a,d ), suggesting that theobserved decrease of MeCP2 level in presence of active SpCas9 is due tooccurrence of modification in the Mecp2 locus. Another possibleexplanation for the discrepancy between the low level of detected indeland high level of protein depletion may be due to underestimation of thetrue indel rate by the SURVEYOR nuclease assay—the detection accuracy ofSURVEYOR has been previously shown to be sensitive to the indel sequencecomposition²¹

MeCP2 loss-of-function has been previously shown to be associated withdendritic tree abnormalities and spine morphogenesis defects inneurons^(14, 16) These phenotypes of MeCP2 deprivation have also beenreproduced in neurons differentiated from MeCP-KO iPS cells¹⁵.Therefore, we investigated whether SpCas9-mediated MeCP2-depletion inneurons can similarly recapitulate morphological phenotypes of Rettsyndrome. Indeed, neurons co-expressing SpCas9 and Mecp2-targeting sgRNAexhibited altered dendritic tree morphology and spine density whencompared with control neurons (FIG. 92). These results demonstrate thatSpCas9 can be used to facilitate the study of gene functions in cellularassays by enabling targeted knockout in post-mitotic neurons.

Given the complexity of the nervous system, which consists of intricatenetworks of heterogeneous cell types, being able to efficiently edit thegenome of neurons in vivo would enable direct testing of gene functionin relevant cell types embedded in native contexts. Consequently, westereotactically injected a mixture (1:1 ratio) of high titer AAV-SpCas9and AAV-SpGuide into the hippocampal dentate gyrus in adult mice. Weobserved high co-transduction efficiency of both vectors (over 80%) inhippocampal granule cells at 4 weeks after viral injection (FIG. 85b,c )resulting in genomic modifications of the Mecp2 locus. (FIG. 85d ).Using SURVEYOR nuclease assay we detected ˜13% indel frequency in brainpunches obtained from injected brain regions (FIG. 85e ). Similar to ourfinding in cultured primary neurons, SpCas9-mediated cutting of theMecp2 locus efficiently decreased MeCP2 protein levels by over 60%.Additionally the number of MeCP2-positive nuclei in the dentate gyrusdecreased by over 75% when injected with AAV-SpCas9 and AAV-SpGuidecompared to AAV-SpCas9 alone (FIG. 85g-h ). These results suggest thatSpCas9 can be used to directly perturb specific genes within intactbiological contexts.

Targeted genomic perturbations can be coupled with quantitative readoutsto provide insights into the biological function of specific genomicelements. To facilitate analysis of AAV-SpCas9 and AAV-SpGuidetransduced cells, we developed a method to purify GFP-KASH labelednuclei using fluorescent activated cell sorting (FACS) (FIG. 86a ).Sorted nuclei can be directly used to purify nuclear DNA and RNA fordownstream biochemical or sequencing analysis. Using sanger sequencing,we found that 13 out of 14 single GFP-positive nuclei contained an indelmutation at the sgRNA target site.

In addition to genomic DNA sequencing, purified GFP-positive nuclei canalso be used for RNAseq analysis to study transcriptional consequencesof MeCP2 depletion (FIG. 86b and FIG. 93). To test the effect of Mecp2knockout on transcription of neurons from the dentate gyrus, we preparedRNAseq libraries using FACS purified GFP⁺ nuclei from animals receivingAAV-SpCas9 as well as either a control sgRNA that has been designed totarget bacterial lacZ gene and not the mouse genome, or aMecp2-targeting sgRNA. All sgRNAs have been optimized to minimize theiroff-target score (CRISPR Design Tool: tools.genome-engineering.org)². Wewere able to find differentially expressed genes (FIG. 86b ) betweencontrol and Mecp2 sgRNA expressing nuclei (p<0.01). We identifiedseveral interesting candidates among genes that were down-regulated inMecp2 sgRNA expressing nuclei: Hpca, Olfinl, and Ncdn, which have beenpreviously reported to play important roles in learning behaviors²²⁻²⁴;and Cplx2, which has been shown to be involved in synaptic vesiclerelease and related to neuronal firing rate^(25, 26). These resultsdemonstrate that the combination of SpCas9-mediated genome perturbationand population level RNAseq analysis provides a way to characterizetranscriptional regulations in neurons and suggest genes that may beimportant to specific neuronal functions or disease processes.

SpCas9-mediated in vivo genome editing in the brain can also be coupledwith electrophysiological recording to study the effect of genomicperturbation on specific cell types or circuit components. To study thefunctional effect of MeCP2 depletion on neuronal physiology westereotactically co-delivered AAV-SpCas9 and AAV-SpGuide targeting Mecp2into the superficial layer of the primary visual cortex (V1) of malemice. V1 was chosen since the superficial layer cortical excitatoryneurons are more accessible to two-photon imaging and two-photon guidedtargeted recording. Two weeks after SpCas9 delivery, mice were subjectedto two-photon guided juxtacellular recordings to compare theelectrophysiological response of KASH-GFP⁺ neurons and GFP⁻ neighboringneurons in layer 2/3 of mouse V1 (FIG. 86a-c ). We measured neuronalresponses to 18 drifting gratings in 20-degree increments and calculatedevoked firing rate (FR) and orientation selectivity index (OSI) of cellsby vector averaging the response. Both FR and OSI were significantlyreduced for excitatory GFP⁺, MeCP2 knockout neurons, compared toneighboring GFP⁻ excitatory neurons (FIG. 86d-e ). In comparison,control sgRNA expression together with SpCas9 did not have any effect onFR and OSI when compared with neighboring uninfected neurons (FIG. 86d-e). These results show that SpCas9 mediated depletion of MeCP2 in adultV1 cortical neurons alters the visual response properties of excitatoryneurons in vivo within two weeks and further demonstrate the versatilityof SpCas9 in facilitating targeted gene knockout in the mammalian brainin vivo, for studying genes functions and dissection of neuronalcircuits.

One key advantage of the SpCas9 system is its ability to facilitatemultiplex genome editing². Introducing stable knockouts of multiplegenes in the brain of living animals will have potentially far-reachingapplications, such as causal interrogation of multigenic mechanisms inphysiological and neuropathological conditions. To test the possibilityof multiplex genome editing in the brain we designed a multiplex sgRNAexpression vector consisting of three sgRNAs in tandem, along withGFP-KASH for nuclei labeling (FIG. 87a ). We chose sgRNAs targeting theDNA methyltransferases gene family (DNMTs), which consists of Dnmt1,Dnmt3a and Dnmt3b. Dnmt1 and 3a are highly expressed in the adult brainand it was previously shown that DNMT activity alters DNA methylationand both Dnmt3a and Dnmt1 are required for synaptic plasticity andlearning and memory formation²⁷. We designed individual sgRNAs againstDnmt3a and Dnmt1 with high modification efficiency. To avoid anypotential compensatory effects by Dnmt3b we decided also to additionallytarget this gene even though it is expressed mainly duringneurodevelopment²⁷. We finally selected individual sgRNAs for highsimultaneous DNA cleavage for all three targeted genes (FIG. 88b andFIG. 94).

To test the efficacy of multiplex genome editing in vivo, westereotactically delivered a mixture of high titer AAV-SpCas9 andAAV-SpGuide into the dorsal and ventral dentate gyrus of male adultmice. After 4 weeks, hippocampi were dissected and targeted cell nucleiwere sorted via FACS. We detected ˜19% (Dnmt3a), 18% (Dnmt1) and 4%(Dnmt3b) indel frequency in the sorted nuclei population using SURVEYORnuclease assay (FIG. 88c ) and sequencing (FIG. 95). Targeting multipleloci raises the question about the effective rate of multiple-knockoutsin individual cells. By using single nuclei sorting combined withtargeted sequencing, we quantified simultaneous targeting of multipleDNMT loci in individual neuronal nuclei (FIG. 88d ). Of neuronal nucleicarrying modification in at least one Dnmt locus, more than 70% ofnuclei contained indels in both Dnmt3a and Dnmt1 (˜40% contained indelsat all 3 loci, and −30% at both Dnmt3a and Dnmt1 loci). These resultsare in agreement with Dnmt3a and Dnmt1 protein depletion levels in thedentate gyrus (FIG. 88e ). Due to the low expression of Dnmt3b in theadult brain, we were not able to detect Dnmt3b protein.

Recent studies with SpCas9 have shown that, although each base withinthe 20-nt sgRNA sequence contributes to overall specificity, genomicloci that partially match the sgRNA can result in off-target doublestrand brakes and indel formations^(28,29). To assess the rate ofoff-target modifications, we computationally identified a list of highlysimilar genomic target sites² and quantified the rate of modificationsusing targeted deep sequencing. Indel analysis of the top predictedoff-target loci revealed a 0-1.6% rate of indel formations demonstratingthat SpCas9 modification is specific. To increase the specificity ofSpCas9-mediated genome editing in vivo, future studies may useoff-targeting minimization strategies such as double nicking^(30, 31)and truncated sgRNAs²⁸.

Knockdown of Dnmt3a and Dnmt1 have been previous shown to impacthippocampus-dependent memory formation²⁷. Consequently, we performedcontextual fear-conditioning behavior tests to investigate the effect ofSpCas9-mediated triple knockout (Dnmt3a, Dnmt1 and Dnmt3b) on memoryacquisition and consolidation. While we did not observe any differencesbetween control and triple knockout mice in the memory acquisitionphase, knockout mice showed impaired memory consolidation when testedunder trained context conditions (FIG. 88f ). This effect was abolishedwhen mice were tested in the altered context. Our results demonstratethat CRIPSR-Cas9-mediated knockout of DNMT family members in dentategyrus neurons is sufficient to probe the function of genes in behavioraltasks.

Together, our results demonstrate that AAV-mediated in vivo delivery ofSpCas9 and sgRNA provides a rapid and powerful technology for achievingprecise genomic perturbations within intact neural circuits. WhereasSpCas9 has been broadly used to engineer dividing cells, we demonstratethat SpCas9 can also be used to engineer the genome of postmitoticneurons with high efficiency via NHEJ-mediated indel generation.SpCas9-mediated genomic perturbations can be combined with biochemical,sequencing, electrophysiological, and behavioral analysis to study thefunction of the targeted genomic element. We demonstrated thatSpCas9-mediated targeting of single or multiple genes can recapitulatemorphological, electrophysiological, and behavioral phenotypes observedusing classical, more time-consuming genetic mouse models. The currentstudy employed the Streptococcus pyogenes Cas9, which not onlynecessitates the use of two AAV vectors but also limits the size ofpromoter elements can be used to achieve cell type-specific targeting.Given the diversity of Cas9 orthologues, with some being substantiallyshorter than SpCas9, 32, 33, it should be possible to engineer singleAAV vectors expressing both Cas9 and sgRNA, as described herein.

References

-   1. Nestler, E. J. & Hyman, S. E. Animal models of neuropsychiatric    disorders. Nat Neurosci 13, 1161-1169 (2010).-   2. Cong, L. et al. Multiplex genome engineering using CRISPR/Cas    systems.

Science 339, 819-823 (2013).

-   3. Mali, P. et al. RNA-guided human genome engineering via Cas9.    Science 339, 823-826 (2013).-   4. Burger, C., Nash, K. & Mandel, R. J. Recombinant adeno-associated    viral vectors in the nervous system. Hum Gene Ther 16, 781-791    (2005).-   5. Wu, Z., Yang, H. & Colosi, P. Effect of genome size on AAV vector    packaging. Mol Ther 18, 80-86 (2010).-   6. Deltcheva, E. et al. CRISPR RNA maturation by trans-encoded small    RNA and host factor RNase III. Nature 471, 602-607 (2011).-   7. Gray, S. J. et al. Optimizing promoters for recombinant    adeno-associated virus-mediated gene expression in the peripheral    and central nervous system using self-complementary vectors. Hum    Gene Ther 22, 1143-1153 (2011).-   8. Levitt, N., Briggs, D., Gil, A. & Proudfoot, N. J. Definition of    an efficient synthetic poly(A) site. Genes Dev 3, 1019-1025 (1989).-   9. Ostlund, C. et al. Dynamics and molecular interactions of linker    of nucleoskeleton and cytoskeleton (LINC) complex proteins. J Cell    Sci 122, 4099-4108 (2009).-   10. Chahrour, M. & Zoghbi, H. Y. The story of Rett syndrome: from    clinic to neurobiology. Neuron 56, 422-437 (2007).-   11. Kishi, N. & Macklis, J. D. MECP2 is progressively expressed in    post-migratory neurons and is involved in neuronal maturation rather    than cell fate decisions. Molecular and cellular neurosciences 27,    306-321 (2004).-   12. Skene, P. J. et al. Neuronal MeCP2 is expressed at near    histone-octamer levels and globally alters the chromatin state.    Molecular cell 37, 457-468 (2010).-   13. Chen, R. Z., Akbarian, S., Tudor, M. & Jaenisch, R. Deficiency    of methyl-CpG binding protein-2 in CNS neurons results in a    Rett-like phenotype in mice. Nat Genet 27, 327-331 (2001).-   14. Zhou, Z. et al. Brain-specific phosphorylation of MeCP2    regulates activity-dependent Bdnf transcription, dendritic growth,    and spine maturation. Neuron 52, 255-269 (2006).-   15. Li, Y. et al. Global transcriptional and translational    repression in human-embryonic-stem-cell-derived Rett syndrome    neurons. Cell Stem Cell 13, 446-458 (2013).-   16. Nguyen, M. V. et al. MeCP2 is critical for maintaining mature    neuronal networks and global brain anatomy during late stages of    postnatal brain development and in the mature adult brain. J    Neurosci 32, 10021-10034 (2012).-   17. Jiang, W., Bikard, D., Cox, D., Zhang, F. & Marraffini, L. A.    RNA-guided editing of bacterial genomes using CRISPR-Cas systems.    Nature biotechnology 31, 233-239 (2013).-   18. Qi, L. S. et al. Repurposing CRISPR as an RNA-guided platform    for sequence-specific control of gene expression. Cell 152,    1173-1183 (2013).-   19. Sapranauskas, R. et al. The Streptococcus thermophilus    CRISPR/Cas system provides immunity in Escherichia coli. Nucleic    acids research 39, 9275-9282 (2011).-   20. Jinek, M. et al. A programmable dual-RNA-guided DNA endonuclease    in adaptive bacterial immunity. Science 337, 816-821 (2012).-   21. Qiu, P. et al. Mutation detection using Surveyor nuclease.    BioTechniques 36, 702-707 (2004).-   22. Kobayashi, M. et al. Hippocalcin-deficient mice display a defect    in cAMP response element-binding protein activation associated with    impaired spatial and associative memory. Neuroscience 133, 471-484    (2005).-   23. Dateki, M. et al. Neurochondrin negatively regulates CaMKII    phosphorylation, and nervous system-specific gene disruption results    in epileptic seizure. The Journal of biological chemistry 280,    20503-20508 (2005).-   24. Nakaya, N. et al. Deletion in the N-terminal half of    olfactomedin 1 modifies its interaction with synaptic proteins and    causes brain dystrophy and abnormal behavior in mice. Experimental    neurology 250, 205-218 (2013).-   25. Reim, K. et al. Complexins regulate a late step in    Ca2+-dependent neurotransmitter release. Cell 104, 71-81 (2001).-   26. Edwardson, J. M. et al. Expression of mutant huntingtin blocks    exocytosis in PC12 cells by depletion of complexin II. The Journal    of biological chemistry 278, 30849-30853 (2003).-   27. Feng, J. et al. Dnmt1 and Dnmt3a maintain DNA methylation and    regulate synaptic function in adult forebrain neurons. Nat Neurosci    13, 423-430 (2010).-   28. Fu, Y. et al. High-frequency off-target mutagenesis induced by    CRISPR-Cas nucleases in human cells. Nature biotechnology 31,    822-826 (2013).-   29. Hsu, P. D. et al. DNA targeting specificity of RNA-guided Cas9    nucleases. Nature biotechnology 31, 827-832 (2013).-   30. Ran, F. A. et al. Double nicking by RNA-guided CRISPR Cas9 for    enhanced genome editing specificity. Cell 154, 1380-1389 (2013).-   31. Mali, P. et al. CAS9 transcriptional activators for target    specificity screening and paired nickases for cooperative genome    engineering. Nature biotechnology 31, 833-838 (2013).-   32. Esvelt, K.M. & Wang, H.H. Genome-scale engineering for systems    and synthetic biology. Molecular systems biology 9, 641 (2013).-   33. Li, W., Teng, F., Li, T. & Zhou, Q. Simultaneous generation and    germline transmission of multiple gene mutations in rat using    CRISPR-Cas systems. Nat Biotechnol 31, 684-686 (2013).

Methods

DNA Constructs

For SpCas9 targets selection and generation of single guide RNA (sgRNA),the 20-nt target sequences were selected to precede a 5′-NGG PAMsequence. To minimize off-targeting effects, the CRIPSR design tool wasused (tools.genome-engineering.org). sgRNA was PCR amplified using U6promoter as a template with forward primer:5′-CGCACGCGTAATTCGAACGCTGACGTCATC-3′ (SEQ ID NO: 526) and reverse primercontaining the sgRNA with 20-nt DNA target site (Bold):

(SEQ ID NO: 527) 5′-CACACGCGTAAAAAAGCACCGACTCGGTGCCACTTTTTCAAGTTGATAACGGACTAGCCTTATTTTAACTTGCTATTTCTAGCTCTAAAAC

CGGTGTTTCGTCCTTTCCAC-3′. 

Control sgRNA sequence was designed to target lacZ gene from E. coli:target sequence: TGCGAATACGCCCACGCGATGGG (SEQ ID NO: 528) EGFP-KASH′construct was a generous gift from Prof. Worman (Columbia University,NYC) and was used as PCR template for cloning the coding cassette intoAAV backbone under the human Synapsin promoter (hSyn). Next,U6-Mecp2sgRNA coding sequence was introduced using MlUI site. For themultiplex gene targeting strategy, individual sgRNAs were PCR amplifiedas described above. All three sgRNAs were ligated with PCR amplifiedhSyn-GFP-KASH-bGHpA cassette by using the Golden Gate cloning strategy.After PCR amplification, the Golden Gate ligation product containing 3sgRNAs and hSyn-GFP-KASH-bGH pA was cloned into AAV backbone. Allobtained constructs were sequenced verified. In order to find theoptimal promoter sequence to drive SpCas9 expression in neurons wetested: hSyn1, mouse truncated Mecp2 (pMecp2), and truncated rat Map1b(pMap1b) promoter sequences². Following primers were used to amplifypromoter regions:

hSyn_F:  (SEQ ID NO: 529) 5′-GTGTCTAGACTGCAGAGGGCCCTG-′;  hSyn_R: (SEQ ID NO: 530) 5'-GTGTCGTGCCTGAGAGCGCAGTCGAGAA-3′;  Mecp2_F (SEQ ID NO: 531) 5′-GAGAAGCTTAGCTGAATGGGGTCCGCCTC-3′;  Mecp2_R (SEQ ID NO: 532) 5′-CTCACCGGTGCGCGCAACCGATGCCGGGACC-3′; Map 1b-283/-58_F (SEQ ID NO: 533)5′-GAGAAGCTTGGCGAAATGATTTGCTGCAGATG-3′;  Map 1b-283/-58_R (SEQ ID NO: 534) 5′-CTCACCGGTGCGCGCGTCGCCTCCCCCTCCGC-3′. 

Another truncation of rat maplb promoter was assembled with thefollowing oligos:

(SEQ ID NO: 535) 5′-AGCTTCGCGCCGGGAGGAGGGGGGACGCAGTGGGCGGAGCGGAGACAGCACCTTCGGAGATAATCCTTTCTCCTGCCGCAGAGCAGAGGAGCGGCGGGAGAGGAACACTTCTCCCAGGCTTTAGCAGAGCCGGA-3′  and (SEQ ID NO: 536)5′-CCGGTCCGGCTCTGCTAAAGCCTGGGAGAAGTGTTCCTCTCCCGCCGCTCCTCTGCTCTGCGGCAGGAGAAAGGATTATCTCCGAAGGTGCTGTCTCCGCTCCGCCCACTGCGTCCCCCCTCCTCCCGGCGCGA-3′. 

Short synthetic polyadenylation signal (spA)³ was assembled usingfollowing oligos:

(SEQ ID NO: 537) 5′-AATTCAATAAAAGATCTTTATTTTCATTAGATCTGTGTGTTGGTTTTTTGTGTGC-3′ and (SEQ ID NO: 538)5′-GGCCGCACACAAAAAACCAACACACAGATCTAATGAAAATAAAGATC TTTTATTG-3′. 

SpCas9 and its D10A mutant version (dSpCas9) were describedpreviously^(4, 5). Plasmid encoding red fluorescent protein (mCherry)under control of EF1α promoter was used for neuron transfection withLipofectamine® 2000 (Life Technologies).

Cell Line Cultures and Transfection

Neuro-2a (N2a) cells were grown in DMEM containing 5% fetal bovine serum(BSA). For HEK293FT cells DMEM containing 10% fetal bovine serum (FBS)was used. Cells were maintained at 37° C. in 5% CO₂ atmosphere. Cellswere transfected using Lipofectamine® 2000 or Polyethylenimine (PEI)“MAX” reagent (Polysciences), according to manufacturer's protocols.

Production of Concentrated AAV Vectors

High titer AAV1/2 particles were produced using AAV1 and AAV2 serotypeplasmids at equal ratios and pDF6 helper plasmid and purified on heparinaffinity column⁶. Titering of viral particles was done by qPCR. Hightiter AAV1 particles were produced by the UNC Vector Core Services(University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill). Low titer AAV1 particlesin DMEM were produced as described previously⁷. Briefly, HEK293FT cellswere transfected with transgene plasmid, pAAV1 serotype plasmid and pDF6helper plasmid using PEI “MAX”. Culture medium was collected after 48 hand filtered through a 0.45 μm PVDF filter (Millipore).

Primary Cortical Neuron Culture

Animals used to obtain neurons for tissue cultures were sacrificedaccording to the protocol approved by the MIT Committee on Animal Care(MIT CAC). Primary cultures were prepared from embryonic day 16 mousebrains⁸. Embryos of either sex were used. Cells were plated onpoly-D-lysine (PDL) coated 24-well plates (BD Biosciences) orlaminin/PDL coated coverslips (VWR). Cultures were grown at 37° C. and5% CO₂ in Neurobasal medium, supplemented with B27, Glutamax (LifeTechnologies) and penicillin/streptomycin mix.

For AAV transduction, cortical neurons in 500 μl Neurobasal culturemedium were incubated at 7 DIV with 300 μl (double infection at 1:1ratio) AAV1-containing conditioned medium from HEK293FT cells⁷. One weekafter transduction neurons have been harvested for downstream processingor fixed in 4% paraformaldehyde for immunofluorescent stainings ormorphology analysis.

For visualization of neuronal morphology, cells at DIV7 were transfectedwith EF1α-mCherry expression vector using Lipofectamine® 2000 (LifeTechnologies) for one week as previously described⁹. For measurement oftotal dendrite length, all dendrites of individual neurons were tracedusing ImageJ software. Quantification of the number of primarydendrites, dendritic tips and the Sholl analysis¹⁰ were performed onimages acquired with fluorescent microscope at a 40× objective (ZeissAxioCam Ax10 microscope, Axiocam MRm camera). For dendrites number, endsof all non-axonal protrusions longer than 10 μm were counted. For Shollanalysis, concentric circles with 5 μm step in diameter wereautomatically drawn around the cell body, and the number of dendritescrossing each circle was counted using ImageJ software with a Shollplug-in.

Stereotactic Injection of AAV1/2 into the Mouse Brain

The MIT CAC approved all animal procedures described here. Adult (12-16weeks old) male C57BL/6N mice were anaesthetized by intraperitoneal(i.p.) injection of 100 mg/kg Ketamine and 10 mg/kg Xylazine.Pre-emptive analgesia was given (Buprenex, 1 mg/kg, i.p.). Craniotomywas performed according to approved procedures and 1 μl i of 1:1 AAVmixture (1×1013 Vg/ml of sMecp2-SpCas9; 6×1012 Vg/ml of DNMT 3×sgRNA;3-5×1012 Vg/ml of hSyn-GFP-KASH) was injected into: dorsal dentate gyrus(anterior/posterior: −1.7; mediolateral: 0.6; dorsal/ventral: −2.15)and/or ventral dentate gyrus (anterior/posterior: −3.52; mediolateral:2.65; dorsal/ventral: −3). For in vivo electrophysiology recordingsexperiments virus injection coordinates were 3 mm lateral (from Bregma)and 1 mm anterior from the posterior suture. The skull was thinned usinga dremel drill with occasional cooling with saline, and the remainingdura was punctured using a glass micropipette filled with the virussuspended in mineral oil. Several injections (3-4) were made atneighboring sites, at a depth of 200-250 μm. A volume of 150-200 nl ofvirus mixture was injected at 75 nl/min rate at each site. After eachinjection, the pipette was held in place for 3-5 minutes prior toretraction to prevent leakage. The incision was sutured and properpost-operative analgesics (Meloxicam, 1-2 mg/kg) were administered forthree days following surgery.

In Vivo Two-Photon Guided Targeted Loose Patch Recordings

Two weeks after virus injection, mice were used for electrophysiologyexperiments. Mice were anesthetized with 2% isoflurane and maintainedusing 0.8% isoflurane. The skin was excised, cleaned with sugi and ametal head plate was attached to the skull using glue and dentalacrylic, and a 2 mm×2 mm craniotomy was performed over the primaryvisual cortex (V1). The exposed area was then covered with a thin layerof 1.5% agarose in artificial cerebrospinal fluid (aCSF; 140 mM NaCl, 5mM KCl, 2 mM CaCl2, 1 mM MgCl2, 0.01 mM EDTA, 10 mM HEPES, 10 mMglucose; pH 7.4). Animal body temperature was maintained duringexperiment 37.5° C. with a heating blanket.

Borosilicate pipettes (WPI) were pulled using a Sutter P-2000 laserpuller (Sutter Instruments). Tip diameter was around 1 μm while theresistance was between 3-5 MQ. Recordings were made using customsoftware (Network Prism, Sur lab), written in Matlab (MathWorks),controlling a MultiClamp 700B amplifier (Axon). A glass pipetteelectrode was inserted into the brain at an angle of 20-35° and anAg/AgCl ground electrode pellet (Warner Instruments) was positioned inthe same solution as the brain and the objective. For fluorescentvisualization, pipettes were filled with Alexa Fluor 594 (MolecularProbes). The pipette was first targeted to the injection site using a10× lens, and then targeted to individual GFP+ cells using a 25× lensvia simultaneous two-photon imaging at 770 nm. Cell proximity wasdetected through deflections in resistance observed in voltage clampduring a rapidly time-varying 5 mV command voltage pulse. Onceresistance had increased by 5-10 MS2, the amplifier was switched tocurrent clamp, and spikes were recorded with zero injected current,under a Bessel filter of 4 KHz and an AC filter of 300 Hz. Virusinjected brains were perfused post hoc and immunohistochemistry wasperformed.

Visual Stimulation and Data Analysis from In Vivo Two-Photon GuidedTargeted Loose Patch Recordings

To assess the orientation selectivity and tuning of genome-editedneurons, we presented oriented gratings using custom software written inMatlab PsychToolbox-3. Gratings were optimized for cellularresponsiveness and were presented by stepping the orientation from 0-360degrees in steps of 20 degrees, with each grating presentation beingpreceded for 4 seconds “off” followed by 4 seconds “on”, for a totalpresentation duration of 144 seconds. Data was acquired directly intoMatlab and saved as .mat files. Spike detection was performed viaanalysis routines that used manually defined thresholds followed byspike shape template matching for further verification. Every spike wastagged and displayed on screen in a graphical user interface whereuponit was manually reviewed for false positives and negatives by theexperimenter. Spike times in response to every stimulus were thengrouped into “on” or “off” periods based on their timing relative tovisual stimulation, and “on” spikes for each stimulus were decrementedby the number of “off” spikes observed during an equal time period. Fororientation experiments, # spikes per stimulus=(# spikes “on”)−(# spikes“off”) because “on” and “off” periods were the same duration.

For every cell of interest, the methods were used to collect responsesfor each oriented stimulus (0 to 360 degrees, in steps of 20 degrees).These responses were then turned into a “tuning curve” of orientationvs. response for each trial. Orientation Selectivity Index (OSI) wascomputed by taking the vector average for the preferred orientationaccording to the formulae as follows:

${OSI} = \frac{\sqrt{\left( {\sum\limits_{i}{{R\left( \theta_{i} \right)}{\sin\left( {2\theta_{i}} \right)}}} \right)^{2} + \left( {\sum\limits_{i}{{R\left( \theta_{i} \right)}{\cos\left( {2\theta_{i}} \right)}}} \right)^{2}}}{\sum\limits_{i}{R\left( \theta_{i} \right)}}$

Tissue Preparation and Purification of Cell Nuclei

Total hippocampus or dentate gyrus was quickly dissected in ice coldDPBS (Life Sciences) and shock frozen on dry ice. For cell nucleipurification, tissue was gently homogenized in 2 ml ice-coldhomogenization buffer (HB) (320 mM Sucrose, 5 mM CaCl, 3 mM Mg(Ac)₂, 10mM Tris pH7.8, 0.1 mM EDTA, 0.1% NP40, 0.1 mM PMSF, 1 mMbeta-mercaptoethanol) using 2 ml Dounce homogenizer (Sigma); 25 timeswith pestle A, followed by 25 times with pestle B. Next, 3 ml of HB wasadded up to 5 ml total and kept on ice for 5 min. For gradientcentrifugation, 5 ml of 50% OptiPrep™ density gradient medium (Sigma)containing 5 mM CaCl, 3 mM Mg(Ac)₂, 10 mM Tris pH 7.8, 0.1 mM PMSF, 1 mMbeta-mercaptoethanol was added and mixed. The lysate was gently loadedon the top of 10 ml 29% iso-osmolar OptiPrep™ solution in a conical 30ml centrifuge tube (Beckman Coulter, SW28 rotor). Samples werecentrifuged at 10,100×g (7,500 rpm) for 30 min at 4° C. The supernatantwas removed and the nuclei pellet was gently resuspended in 65 mMbeta-glycerophosphate (pH 7.0), 2 mM MgCl₂, 25 mM KCl, 340 mM sucroseand 5% glycerol. Number and quality of purified nuclei was controlledusing bright field microscopy.

Cell Nuclei Sorting

Purified GFP-positive (GFP⁺) and negative (GFP⁻) intact nuclei wereco-labeled with Vybrant® DyeCycle™ Ruby Stain (1:500, Life Technologies)and sorted using BD FACSAria III (Koch Institute Flow Cytometry Core,MIT). GFP⁺ and GFP⁻ nuclei were collected in 1.5 ml Eppendorf tubescoated with 1% BSA and containing 400 μl i of resuspension buffer (65 mMbeta-glycerophosphate pH 7.0, 2 mM MgCl₂, 25 mM KCl, 340 mM sucrose and5% glycerol). After sorting, all samples were kept on ice andcentrifuged at 10,000×g for 20 min at 4° C. Nuclei pellets were storedat −80° C. or were directly used for downstream processing.

Genomic DNA Extraction and SURVEYOR™ Assay

For functional testing of sgRNA, 50-70% confluent N2a cells wereco-transfected with a single PCR amplified sgRNA and SpCas9 vector.Cells transfected with SpCas9 only served as negative control. Cellswere harvested 48 h after transfection, and DNA was extracted usingDNeasy Blood & Tissue Kit (Qiagen) according to the manufacturer'sprotocol. To isolate genomic DNA from AAV1 transduced primary neurons,DNeasy Blood & Tissue Kit was used 7 days post AAV transduction,according to the manufacturer's instruction.

Sorted nuclei or dissected tissues were lysed in lysis buffer (10 mMTris, pH 8.0, 10 mM NaCl, 10 mM EDTA, 0.5 mM SDS, Proteinase K (PK, 1mg/ml) and RNAse A) at 55° C. for 30 min. Next, chloroform-phenolextraction was performed followed by DNA precipitation with ethanol,according to standard procedures. DNA was finally resuspended in TEBuffer (10 mM Tris pH 8.0, 0.1 mM EDTA) and used for downstreamanalysis. Functional testing of individual sgRNAs was performed bySURVEYOR™ nuclease assay (Transgenomics) using PCR primers listed inSupplementary Table 2. Band intensity quantification was performed asdescribed before¹¹.

RNA Library Preparation and Sequencing

Two weeks after bilateral viral delivery of SpCas9 with guide targetingMecp2 (4 animals) or SpCas9 with gRNA targeting lacZ (4 animals), thedentate gyrus was quickly dissected in ice cold DPBS (Life Sciences) andtransferred immediately to RNA-later solution (Ambion). After 24 hoursin 4° C. the tissue was moved to −80° C. Populations of 100 targetedneuronal nuclei were FACS sorted into 10 μl TCL buffer supplemented with1% 2-mercaptoethanol (Qiagen). After centrifuging, samples were frozenimmediately at −80° C. The RNA was purified by AMPure RNAcleanXP SPRIbeads (Beckman Coulter Genomics) following the manufactures'instructions, and washed three times with 80% ethanol, omitting thefinal elution. The beads with captured RNA were air-dried and processedimmediately for cDNA synthesis. Samples with no nuclei were used asnegative controls. Three population samples were used for each animal,total of 24 population sample, in cDNA library preparations followingthe SMART-seq2 protocol¹² only replacing the reverse transcriptaseenzyme with 0.1 ul of Maxima H Minus enzyme (200 U/ul, ThermoScientific), and scaling down the PCR reaction to a volume of 25 ul. Thetagmentation reaction and final PCR amplification were done using theNextera XT DNA Sample preparation kit (Illumina), with the followingmodifications. All reaction volumes were scaled down by a factor of 4,and the libraries were pooled after the PCR amplification step by taking2.5 ul of each sample. The pooled libraries were cleaned andsize-selected using two rounds of 0.7 volume of AMPure XP SPRI beadcleanup (Beckman Coulter Genomics). Samples were loaded on aHigh-Sensitivity DNA chip (Agilent) to check the quality of the library,while quantification was done with Qubit High-Sensitivity DNA kit(Invitrogen). The pooled libraries were diluted to a final concentrationof 4 nM and 12 pmol and were sequenced using Illumina Miseq with 75 bppaired end reads.

RNA Libraries Data Analysis

Bowtie2 index was created based on the mouse mm9 UCSC genome and knownGene transcriptome¹³, and paired-end reads were aligned directly to thisindex using Bowtie2 with command line options -q --phred33-quals -n 2-e99999999-1 25-I 1-X 1000-a -m 200−p 4--chunkmbs 512. Next, RSEM v1.27was run with default parameters on the alignments created by Bowtie2 toestimate expression levels. RSEM's gene level expression estimates (tau)were multiplied by 1,000,000 to obtain transcript per million (TPM)estimates for each gene, and TPM estimates were transformed to log-spaceby taking log 2(TPM+1). Genes were considered detected if theirtransformed expression level equal to or above 2 (in log 2(TPM+1)scale). A library is filtered out if it has less than 8000 genesdetected. Based on this criterion, 4 libraries were filtered andexcluded from the downstream analysis. To find differentially expressedgenes between control animals and Mecp2 sgRNA expressing animals,Student's t-test (Matlab V2013b) and cross validation was used in 20random permutation runs, where in each run one library from each animalwas randomly chosen to exclude (this results in a total of 12 librariesused in the t-test each time). The t-test was run on all genes that havemean expression level above 0.9 quantile (usually around 5 log 2(TPM+1))for each sample. Then, genes that were significant (p<0.01) in more thanone thirds of the permutation runs were chosen. The log 2(TPM+1)expression levels of these genes across samples were clustered usinghierarchical clustering (Matlab V2013b).

Immunofluorescent Staining

Cell culture: For immunofluorescent staining of primary neurons, cellswere fixed 7 days after viral delivery with 4% paraformaldehyd (PFA) for20 min at RT. After washing 3 times with PBS, cells were blocked with 5%normal goat serum (NGS) (Life Technologies), 5% donkey serum (DS)(Sigma) and 0.1% Triton-X100 (Sigma) in PBS for 30 min at RT. Cells wereincubated with primary antibodies in 2.5% NGS, 2.5% DS and 0.1%Triton-X100 for 1 hour at RT or overnight at 4° C. After washing 3 timeswith PBST, cells were incubated with secondary antibodies for 1 hour atRT. Finally, coverslips were mounted using VECTASHIELD HardSet MountingMedium with DAPI (Vector Laboratories) and imaged using an Zeiss AxioCamAx10 microscope and an Axiocam MRm camera. Images were processed usingthe Zen 2012 software (Zeiss). Quantifications were performed by usingImageJ software 1.48 h and Neuron detector plugin.

Mice were sacrified 4 weeks after viral delivery by a lethal dose ofKetamine/Xylazine and transcardially perfused with PBS followed by PFA.Fixed tissue was sectioned using vibratome (Leica, VT1000S). Next, 30 μmsections were boiled for 2 min in sodium citrate buffer (10 mMtri-sodium citrate dehydrate, 0.05% Tween20, pH 6.0) and cool down at RTfor 20 min. Sections were blocked with 4% normal goat serum (NGS) inTBST (137 mM NaCl, 20 mM Tris pH 7.6, 0.2% Tween-20) for 1 hour.Paraffin sections were cut using a microtom (Leica RM2125 RTS) to 8 μm,and stained as described previously¹⁴.

Sections were incubated with primary antibodies diluted in TBST with 4%NGS overnight at 4° C. After 3 washes in TBST, samples were incubatedwith secondary antibodies. After washing with TBST 3 times, sectionswere mounted using VECTASHIELD HardSet Mounting Medium with DAPI andvisualized with confocal microscope (Zeiss LSM 710, Ax10 ImagerZ2, Zen2012 Software).

Following primary antibodies were used: rabbit anti-Dnmt3a (Santa Cruz,1:100); rabbit anti-MeCP2 (Millipore, 1:200); mouse anti-NeuN(Millipore, 1:50-1:400); chicken anti-GFAP (Abcam, 1:400); mouseanti-Map2 (Sigma, 1:500); chicken anti-GFP (Ayes labs, 1:200-1:400);mouse anti-HA (Cell Signaling, 1:100). Secondary antibodies:AlexaFluor®488, 568 or 633 (Life Technologies, 1:500-1:1,000).

Quantification of LIVE/DEAD® Assay

Control and transduced primary neurons were stained using the LIVE/DEAD®assay (Life technologies) according to the manufacturer's instruction.To avoid interference with the GFP-signal from GFP-KASH expression,cells were stained for DEAD (ethidium homodimer) and DAPI (all cells)only. Stained cells were imaged using fluorescence microscopy and DEAD,GFP and DAPI positive cells were counted by using ImageJ 1.48 h softwareand Neuron detector plugin.

Western Blot Analysis

Transduced primary cortical neurons (24 well, 7 days after viraldelivery) and transduced tissue samples (4 weeks after viral delivery)were lysed in 50 μL of ice-cold RIPA buffer (Cell Signaling) containing0.1% SDS and proteases inhibitors (Roche, Sigma). Cell lysates weresonicated for 5 min in a Bioruptor sonicater (Diagenode) and proteinconcentration was determined using the BCA Protein Assay Kit (PierceBiotechnology, Inc.). Protein lysats were dissolved in SDS-PAGE samplebuffer, separated under reducing conditions on 4-15% Tris-HCl gels(Bio-Rad) and analyzed by Western blotting using primary antibodies:rabbit anti-Dnmt3a (Santa Cruz, 1:500), mouse anti-Dnmt1 (NovusBiologicals, 1:800), rabbit anti-Mecp2 (Millipore, 1:400), rabbitanti-Tubulin (Cell Signaling, 1:10,000) followed by secondary anti-mouseand anti-rabbbit HRP antibodies (Sigma-Aldrich, 1:10,000). GAPDH wasdirectly visualized with rabbit HRP coupled anti-GAPDH antibody (CellSignaling, 1:10,000). Tubulin or GAPDH served as loading control. Blotswere imaged with ChemiDoc™ MP system with ImageLab 4.1 software(BioRad), and quantified using ImageJ software 1.48 h.

Delay Contextual Fear Conditioning (DCFC)

8 weeks after bilateral SpCas9/DNMT 3×sgRNA delivery into the dorsal andventral dentate gyrus of 12 weeks old C57BL/6N male mice, animals werehabituated to the experimentor and the behavior room for 7 days.SpCas9/GFP-KASH injected littermates served as controls. At day 1 ofDCFC, mouse cages were placed into an islolated anterroom to preventmice from auditory cues before and after testing. Indivdual mice wereplaced into the FC chamber (Med Associates Inc.) and a 12 minhabituation period was performed. After habituation the mice were placedback to their homecages. The next day (training day) individual micewere placed into the chamber and were allowed to habituate for 4 min.After another 20 sec (pre-tone) interval, the tone (auditory cue) at alevel of 85 dB, 2.8 kHz was presented for 20 sec follwed by 18 sec delayinterval before the foot-shock was presented (0.5 mA, 2 sec). After thefoot-shock, 40 sec interval (post-tone/shock) preceded a next identicaltrial starting with the 20 sec pre-tone period. The training trial wasrepeated 6 times before the mice were placed back to their homecages. Atday 3 (testing day), mice were first placed in the conditioning contextchamber for 3 min. Next, mice underwent 4× 100 sec testing trialsstarting with a 20 sec interval followed by 20 sec tone and a 60 secpost-tone interval. Finally, mice were placed in an alteredcontext-conditioning chamber (flat floor vs. grid, tetrameric vs.heptameric chamber, vanillin scent) and the testing trial was repeated.Freezing behavior was recorded and analysis was performed blind off-linemanually and confirmed with Noldus EthoVision XT software (NoldusInformation Technology).

Deep Sequencing Analysis and Indel Detection

CRISPR Design Tool (crispr.mit.edu/) was used to find potentialoff-targets for DNMT family genes, targeted by CRISPR-SpCas9 in thebrain. Targeted cell nuclei from dentate gyrus were FACS sorted 12 weeksafter viral delivery and genomic DNA was purified as described above.For each gene of interest, the genomic region flanking the CRISPR targetsite was amplified by a fusion PCR method to attach the Illumina P5adapters as well as unique sample-specific barcodes to the targetamplicons (for on- and off-target primers see Supplementary Table 3)¹⁵.Barcoded and purified DNA samples were quantified by Qubit 2.0Fluorometer (Life Technologies) and pooled in an equimolar ratio.Sequencing libraries were then sequenced with the Illumina MiSeqPersonal Sequencer (Life Technologies), with read length 300 bp.

The MiSeq reads were analyzed as described previously in¹⁵. Briefly,reads were filtered by Phred quality (Q score) and aligned using aSmith-Waterman algorithm to the genomic region 50 nucleotides upstreamand downstream of the target site. Indels were estimated in the alignedregion from 5 nucleotides upstream to 5 nucleotides downstream of thetarget site (a total of 30 bp). Negative controls for each sample wereused to estimate the inclusion or exclusion of indels as putativecutting events. We computed a maximum-likelihood estimator (MLE) for thefraction of reads having target-regions with true-indels, using theper-target-region-per-read error rate from the data of the negativecontrol sample. The MLE scores and cutting rates for each target arelisted in Supplementary Table 1.

Statistical Analysis

All experiments were performed with a minimum of two independentbiological replicates. Statistics were performed with Prism6 (GraphPad)using Student's two tailed t-test.

Supplementary Tables

Supplementary Table 1. Off-target analysis for DNMTs targetingPotential off-target Gene GI sequences MLE (%) SEM Dnmt1 Abca1 NM_013454GGAGCTGGAGCTGTTCACGTTGG 0.0000 0.00 Mctp1 NM_030174CGGGCAGCAGATGTTCGCGTAGG 0.0806 0.08 Exd2 NM_133798AGGGCTTGAGATGTTCGGGCTGG 0.0612 0.06 Pik3r6 NM_001004435CCGGCTGGGGCTGTCCTCGCTAG 0.0000 0.00 Sobp NM_175407CGGGGTGCAGCTGCTCACGCCAG 0.0000 0.00 Vac14 NM_146216CTGGCGGGAGCTGGTCGCGTGAG 0.0083 0.00 Dnmt3a Efemp2 NM_021474TGAGCATGGGCCGCTGGCGGTGG 0.0050 0.01 Mmpr1b NM_001277217ATGGCATAGGCCGCTGACAGAGG 1.0117 0.01 Syce1 NM_001143765TTGGCATGGTGAGCTGGCGGGGG 0.0067 0.00 Atp8b3 NM_026094TGGGCAGGGGTCTCTGAGGGCAG 0.0067 0.01 Rdh11 NM_021557TTGGCATGGGTCTCTTACCAAGG 0.0017 0.00 Dnmt3b Hecw2 NM_001001883ACATGGTTCCAGTGGGTATGTAG 0.0000 0.00 Plekhg3 NM_153804GGAGGTGGGCAGCGGGTATGTAG 0.0954 0.01 Cde25b NM_001111075AGAAGGTCCCCGCGGGCATGGAG 0.2421 0.12 Top1mt NM_028404GGAGGGAACCAGCCGGTATGGGG 0.0167 0.01 Sesn2 NM_144907AGAGAGTGGCAGTGGGTAAGCAG 0.0000 0.00 Ncan NM_007789AGAGGTGGCCAGCGGGCACGAAG 0.0017 0.00 Nacad NM_001081652TGAGGGGGCCAGCTGGGATGCAG 1.6254 0.76(SEQ ID NO: 539 to 556)

Supplementary Table 2. PCR primers used in the SURVEYOR assayForward primer SEQ ID Reverse primer SEQ ID Gene sequence (5′-3′) NO:sequence (5′-3′) NO: Mecp2 GGTCTCATGTGTGGCACTCA 557 TGTCCAACCTTCAGGCAAGG561 Dnmt3a ATCCCTCCTCAGAGGGTCAGC 558 TACCTCATGCACAGCTAGCACC 562 Dnmt1TTCGGGCATAGCATGGTCTTCC 559 GTTCTATTTCAGAGGGCTGATCCC 563 Dnmt3bGTTCTGAGCCGCACAGTTTGG 560 GGATAAGAAGGGACAATACAGG 564

Supplementary Table 3.Primers used for on- and off-target genomic loci amplificationForward primer Reverse primer Gene sequence (5′-3′) SEQ ID NO:sequence (5′-3′) SEQ ID NO: Dnmt1 GCCGGGGTCTC 565 CTACCGCCTGCGGA 586GTTCAGAGCT CATGGT Dnmt3a CCTGTCTCTCTGT 566 CCGTTTGCTGATGTAGTA 587CCTAGGGCTCC GGGGTCC Dnmt3b CCCACAGGAAA 567 CATCCTTCGTGTCT 588CAATGAAGGGAGAC GAGGACTGGTC Abca1 CCCTGACACCAGC 568 CTCTGGGTGAC 589TGTTCAGCAC CACACACGATGC Metp1 GAGCAGGCAGA 569 GGAGAGCGTCC 590 GCCGAGCAAGGCCAGGAG Exd2 GGGTCTTGTTGTG 570 GAAGCTCTCTTAA 591 AGTAGGGTGTG CTACTGTTCPik3r6 CCTGGAATACTAT 571 CAGGCCCTAGCAGCG 592 TTCCACGCCG AGCAG SobpGCAGCACACTCCA 572 GGAAGGGGCTTTCC 593 CCCTCACAT TCCGAGC Vac14 CGGCGTCACG573 GCTCCGACCCTGCT 594 TGACCTGAGTAAC CTCCCA Efemp2 GTGTCTGCCTC 574CCTGTTCATCAGGCTC 595 GCTCTGCTGC GTAGCCC Bmpr1b CTATCTGAAATCC 575CGATTGCTGGCTTGC 596 ACCACCTTAGACGC CTTGAG Syce1 GCCTGAGGGGG 576GGTTCGCGTCCGCC 597 CCAGAGGT CGCGTGAT Atp8b3 GGGACTCC 577 GAGAGGTGGTC 598CCGGGTGGTG CTGTCGCCTATG Rdh11 GACCCTGTGTTT 578 CCCAGCAGGTCACA 599CAAGTCTCTCTG GCTGACATC Hecw2 GGCCATCCAGTAC 579 AGCACAGTATGTATTC 600ATTCAATACG TATAAAATAATACGAC Plekhg3 GCAGAAGCCGT 580 GTGGGAGGGGACAG 601GACTCACAGCA AGACCATG Cdc25b CTTGTGCTTG 581 CCTTACCTGTTCCTCT 602TGATTCTGTCCTTACTGC TCCTTATCCAGC Top1mt CGAGAAGTC 582 ATACCCAGTCCAC 603GATGCAGACACTTCAA ATCCCTGCC Sesn2 GCTGAAGACTGGC 583 CCTCTGCATCTCCCTCAGGA604 GAGCACAGCT AGTATT Ncan GACCTGAATGTTG 584 GCCTCCTGTC 605TGGCTGAGAGTCC CCCAGGTCCC Nacad CCCTCACGTTCC 585 CACTAGGCTT 606TGTCCAGCAA GGGCTGCCCTCTReferences

-   1. Ostlund, C. et al. Dynamics and molecular interactions of linker    of nucleoskeleton and cytoskeleton (LINC) complex proteins. J Cell    Sci 122, 4099-4108 (2009).-   2. Gray, S. J. et al. Optimizing promoters for recombinant    adeno-associated virus-mediated gene expression in the peripheral    and central nervous system using self-complementary vectors. Hum    Gene Ther 22, 1143-1153 (2011).-   3. Levitt, N., Briggs, D., Gil, A. & Proudfoot, N.J. Definition of    an efficient synthetic poly(A) site. Genes Dev 3, 1019-1025 (1989).-   4. Jinek, M. et al. A programmable dual-RNA-guided DNA endonuclease    in adaptive bacterial immunity. Science 337, 816-821 (2012).-   5. Cong, L. et al. Multiplex genome engineering using CRISPR/Cas    systems. Science 339, 819-823 (2013).-   6. McClure, C., Cole, K.L., Wulff, P., Klugmann, M. & Murray, A.J.    Production and titering of recombinant adeno-associated viral    vectors. J Vis Exp, e3348 (2011).-   7. Konermann, S. et al. Optical control of mammalian endogenous    transcription and epigenetic states. Nature 500, 472-476 (2013).-   8. Banker, G. & Goslin, K. Developments in neuronal cell culture.    Nature 336, 185-186 (1988).-   9. Swiech, L. et al. CLIP-170 and IQGAP1 cooperatively regulate    dendrite morphology. J Neurosci 31, 4555-4568 (2011).-   10. Sholl, D. A. Dendritic organization in the neurons of the visual    and motor cortices of the cat. J Anat 87, 387-406 (1953).-   11. Ran, F. A. et al. Genome engineering using the CRISPR-Cas9    system. Nature protocols 8, 2281-2308 (2013).-   12. Picelli, S. et al. Smart-seq2 for sensitive full-length    transcriptome profiling in single cells. Nature methods 10,    1096-1098 (2013).-   13. Fujita, P. A. et al. The UCSC Genome Browser database:    update 2011. Nucleic acids research 39, D876-882 (2011).-   14. Tzingounis, A. V. et al. The KCNQS potassium channel mediates a    component of the afterhyperpolarization current in mouse    hippocampus. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the    United States of America 107, 10232-10237 (2010).-   15. Hsu, P. D. et al. DNA targeting specificity of RNA-guided Cas9    nucleases. Nature biotechnology 31, 827-832 (2013).-   16. Qiu, P. et al. Mutation detection using Surveyor nuclease.    BioTechniques 36, 702-707 (2004).

Example 41: Further Investigation into Nuclear Tagging Technique

This Example concerns epitope tagging of Cas9. In brief, we found that atriple epitope tag (specifically 3×HA) improves the detection signal.

Materials and Methods

Cell Culture and Transfection

Human embryonic kidney (HEK) cell line 293FT (Life Technologies) ormouse Hepa1-6 (Sigma-Aldrich) cell line was maintained in Dulbecco'smodified Eagle's Medium (DMEM) supplemented with 10% fetal bovine serum(HyClone), 2 mM GlutaMAX (Life Technologies), 100 U/mL penicillin, and100 μg/mL streptomycin at 37° C. with 5% CO₂ incubation.

Cells were seeded onto 24-well plates (Corning) at a density of 120,000cells/well, 24 hours prior to transfection. Cells were transfected usingLipofectamine 2000 (Life Technologies) at 80-90% confluency followingthe manufacturer's recommended protocol. A total of 500 ng Cas9 plasmidand 100 ng of U6-sgRNA PCR product was transfected.

SURVEYOR Nuclease Assay for Genome Modification

293FT and HUES62 cells were transfected with DNA as described above.Cells were incubated at 37° C. for 72 hours post-transfection prior togenomic DNA extraction. Genomic DNA was extracted using the QuickExtractDNA Extraction Solution (Epicentre) following the manufacturer'sprotocol. Briefly, pelleted cells were resuspended in QuickExtractsolution and incubated at 65° C. for 15 minutes, 68° C. for 15 minutes,and 98° C. for 10 minutes.

The genomic region flanking the CRISPR target site for each gene was PCRamplified, and products were purified using QiaQuick Spin Column(Qiagen) following the manufacturer's protocol. 400 ng total of thepurified PCR products were mixed with 2 microlitres 10× Taq DNAPolymerase PCR buffer (Enzymatics) and ultrapure water to a final volumeof 20 microlitres, and subjected to a re-annealing process to enableheteroduplex formation: 95° C. for 10 min, 95° C. to 85° C. ramping at−2° C./s, 85° C. to 25° C. at −0.25° C./s, and 25° C. hold for 1 minute.After re-annealing, products were treated with SURVEYOR nuclease andSURVEYOR enhancer S (Transgenomics) following the manufacturer'srecommended protocol, and analyzed on 4-20% Novex TBE poly-acrylamidegels (Life Technologies). Gels were stained with SYBR Gold DNA stain(Life Technologies) for 30 minutes and imaged with a Gel Doc gel imagingsystem (Bio-rad). Quantification was based on relative band intensities.Indel percentage was determined by the formula,100×(1−(1−(b+c)/(a+b+c))^(1/2)), where a is the integrated intensity ofthe undigested PCR product, and b and c are the integrated intensitiesof each cleavage product.

Western Blot

HEK 293FT cells were transfected and lysed in 1×RIPA buffer(Sigma-Aldrich) supplemented with Protease Inhibitor (Roche). Thelysates were loaded onto Bolt 4-12% Bis-Tris Plus Gels (Invitrogen) andtransferred to nitrocellulose membranes. The membranes were blocked inTris-buffered saline containing 0.1% Tween-20 and 5% blocking agent(G-Biosciences). The membranes were probed with rabbit anti-FLAG(1:5,000, Abcam), HRP-conjugated anti-GAPDH (1:5,000 Cell SignalingTechnology), and HRP-conjugated anti-rabbit (1:1,000) antibodies andvisualized with a Gel Doc XR+ System (Bio-Rad).

References

-   Banker G, Goslin K. Developments in neuronal cell culture. Nature.    1988 Nov. 10; 336(6195):185-6.-   Bedell, V. M. et al. In vivo genome editing using a high-efficiency    TALEN system. Nature 491, 114-U133 (2012).-   Bhaya, D., Davison, M. & Barrangou, R. CRISPR-Cas systems in    bacteria and archaea: versatile small RNAs for adaptive defense and    regulation. Annu Rev Genet 45, 273-297 (2011).-   Bobis-Wozowicz, S., Osiak, A., Rahman, S. H. & Cathomen, T. Targeted    genome editing in pluripotent stem cells using zinc-finger    nucleases. Methods 53, 339-346 (2011).-   Boch, J. et al. Breaking the code of DNA binding specificity of    TAL-type III effectors. Science 326, 1509-1512 (2009).-   Bogenhagen, D. F. & Brown, D. D. Nucleotide sequences in Xenopus 5S    DNA required for transcription termination. Cell 24, 261-270 (1981).-   Bultmann, S. et al. Targeted transcriptional activation of silent    oct4 pluripotency gene by combining designer TALEs and inhibition of    epigenetic modifiers. Nucleic Acids Res 40, 5368-5377 (2012).-   Carlson, D. F. et al. Efficient TALEN-mediated gene knockout in    livestock. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 109, 17382-17387 (2012).-   Chen, F. Q. et al. High-frequency genome editing using ssDNA    oligonucleotides with zinc-finger nucleases. Nat Methods 8, 753-U796    (2011).-   Cho, S. W., Kim, S., Kim, J. M. & Kim, J. S. Targeted genome    engineering in human cells with the Cas9 RNA-guided endonuclease.    Nat Biotechnol 31, 230-232 (2013).-   Christian, M. et al. Targeting DNA double-strand breaks with TAL    effector nucleases. Genetics 186, 757-761 (2010).-   Cong, L. et al. Multiplex genome engineering using CRISPR-Cas    systems. Science 339, 819-823 (2013).-   Deltcheva, E. et al. CRISPR RNA maturation by trans-encoded small    RNA and host factor RNase III. Nature 471, 602-607 (2011).-   Deveau, H., Garneau, J. E. & Moineau, S. CRISPR-Cas system and its    role in phage-bacteria interactions. Annu Rev Microbiol 64, 475-493    (2010).-   Ding, Q. et al. A TALEN genome-editing system for generating human    stem cell-based disease models. Cell Stem Cell 12, 238-251 (2013).-   Garneau, J. E. et al. The CRISPR-Cas bacterial immune system cleaves    bacteriophage and plasmid DNA. Nature 468, 67-71 (2010).-   Gasiunas, G., Barrangou, R., Horvath, P. & Siksnys, V. Cas9-crRNA    ribonucleoprotein complex mediates specific DNA cleavage for    adaptive immunity in bacteria. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 109,    E2579-2586 (2012).-   Geurts, A. M. et al. Knockout Rats via Embryo Microinjection of    Zinc-Finger Nucleases. Science 325, 433-433 (2009).-   Gray S J, Foti S B, Schwartz J W, Bachaboina L, Taylor-Blake B,    Coleman J, Ehlers M D, Zylka M J, McCown T J, Samulski R J.    Optimizing promoters for recombinant adeno-associated virus-mediated    gene expression in the peripheral and central nervous system using    self-complementary vectors. Hum Gene Ther. 2011 September;    22(9):1143-53. doi: 10.1089/hum.2010.245.-   Guschin, D. Y. et al. A rapid and general assay for monitoring    endogenous gene modification. Methods Mol Biol 649, 247-256 (2010).-   Hasty, P., Rivera-Perez, J. & Bradley, A. The length of homology    required for gene targeting in embryonic stem cells. Mol Cell Biol    11, 5586-5591 (1991).-   Horvath, P. & Barrangou, R. CRISPR-Cas, the immune system of    bacteria and archaea. Science 327, 167-170 (2010).-   Hsu, P. D. & Zhang, F. Dissecting neural function using targeted    genome engineering technologies. ACS Chem Neurosci 3, 603-610    (2012).-   Hwang, W. Y. et al. Efficient genome editing in zebrafish using a    CRISPR-Cas system. Nat Biotechnol 31, 227-229 (2013).-   Jiang, W., Bikard, D., Cox, D., Zhang, F. & Marraffini, L. A.    RNA-guided editing of bacterial genomes using CRISPR-Cas systems.    Nat Biotechnol 31, 233-239 (2013).-   Jinek, M. et al. A programmable dual-RNA-guided DNA endonuclease in    adaptive bacterial immunity. Science 337, 816-821 (2012).-   Jinek, M. et al. RNA-programmed genome editing in human cells. eLife    2, e00471 (2013).-   Kaplitt, M. G., et al., Safety and tolerability of gene therapy with    an adeno-associated virus (AAV) borne GAD gene for Parkinson's    disease: an open label, phase I trial. Lancet. 2007 Jun. 23;    369(9579):2097-105.-   Levitt N. Briggs D. Gil A. Proudfoot N. J. Definition of an    efficient synthetic poly(A) site. Genes Dev. 1989; 3:1019-1025.-   Liu D, Fischer I. Two alternative promoters direct neuron-specific    expression of the rat microtubule-associated protein 1B gene. J    Neurosci. 1996 Aug. 15; 16(16):5026-36.-   Lopes, V. S., etc al., Retinal gene therapy with a large MYO7A cDNA    using adeno-assocaited virus. Gene Ther, 2013 Jan. 24. doi:    10.1038/gt 2013.3.[Epub ahead of print]-   Mahfouz, M. M. et al. De novo-engineered transcription    activator-like effector (TALE) hybrid nuclease with novel DNA    binding specificity creates double-strand breaks. Proc Natl Acad Sci    USA 108, 2623-2628 (2011).-   Makarova, K. S. et al. Evolution and classification of the    CRISPR-Cas systems. Nat Rev Microbiol 9, 467-477 (2011).-   Mali, P. et al. RNA-guided human genome engineering via Cas9.    Science 339, 823-826 (2013).-   McClure C, Cole K L, Wulff P, Klugmann M, Murray A J. Production and    titering of recombinant adeno-associated viral vectors. J Vis Exp.    2011 Nov. 27; (57):e3348. doi: 10.3791/3348.-   Michaelis, L. M., Maud “Die kinetik der invertinwirkung.”. Biochem.    z (1913).-   Miller, J. C. et al. An improved zinc-finger nuclease architecture    for highly specific genome editing. Nat Biotechnol 25, 778-785    (2007).-   Miller, J. C. et al. A TALE nuclease architecture for efficient    genome editing. Nat Biotechnol 29, 143-148 (2011).-   Moscou, M. J. & Bogdanove, A. J. A simple cipher governs DNA    recognition by TAL effectors. Science 326, 1501    (2009).Porteus, M. H. & Baltimore, D. Chimeric nucleases stimulate    gene targeting in human cells. Science 300, 763 (2003).-   Mussolino, C. et al. A novel TALE nuclease scaffold enables high    genome editing activity in combination with low toxicity. Nucleic    acids research 39, 9283-9293 (2011).-   Nathwani, A. C., et al., Adenovirus-associated virus vector-mediated    gene transfer in hemophilia B. N Engl J Med. 2011 Dec. 22;    365(25):2357-65. doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa1108046. Epub 2011 Dec. 10.-   Oliveira, T. Y. et al. Translocation capture sequencing: a method    for high throughput mapping of chromosomal rearrangements. J Immunol    Methods 375, 176-181 (2012).-   Perez, E. E. et al. Establishment of HIV-1 resistance in CD4(+) T    cells by genome editing using zinc-finger nucleases. Nat Biotechnol    26, 808-816 (2008).-   Qi, L. S. et al. Repurposing CRISPR as an RNA-guided platform for    sequence-specific control of gene expression. Cell 152, 1173-1183    (2013).-   REMINGTON'S PHARMACEUTICAL SCIENCES (Mack Pub. Co., N. J. 1991)-   Reyon, D. et al. FLASH assembly of TALENs for high-throughput genome    editing. Nat Biotechnol 30, 460-465 (2012).-   Saleh-Gohari, N. & Helleday, T. Conservative homologous    recombination preferentially repairs DNA double-strand breaks in the    S phase of the cell cycle in human cells. Nucleic Acids Res 32,    3683-3688 (2004).-   Sander, J. D. et al. Selection-free zinc-finger-nuclease engineering    by context-dependent assembly (CoDA). Nat Methods 8, 67-69 (2011).-   Sanjana, N. E. et al. A transcription activator-like effector    toolbox for genome engineering. Nat Protoc 7, 171-192 (2012).-   Sapranauskas, R. et al. The Streptococcus thermophilus CRISPR-Cas    system provides immunity in Escherichia coli. Nucleic Acids Res 39,    9275-9282 (2011).-   Shen, B. et al. Generation of gene-modified mice via    Cas9/RNA-mediated gene targeting. Cell Res 23, 720-723 (2013).-   Smithies, O., Gregg, R. G., Boggs, S. S., Koralewski, M. A. &    Kucherlapati, R. S. Insertion of DNA sequences into the human    chromosomal beta-globin locus by homologous recombination. Nature    317, 230-234 (1985).-   Soldner, F. et al. Generation of isogenic pluripotent stem cells    differing exclusively at two early onset Parkinson point mutations.    Cell 146, 318-331 (2011).-   Takasu, Y. et al. Targeted mutagenesis in the silkworm Bombyx mori    using zinc finger nuclease mRNA injection. Insect Biochem Molec 40,    759-765 (2010).-   Tangri S, et al., Rationally engineered therapeutic proteins with    reduced immunogenicity, J Immunol. 2005 Mar. 15; 174(6):3187-96.-   Thomas, K. R., Folger, K. R. & Capecchi, M. R. High frequency    targeting of genes to specific sites in the mammalian genome. Cell    44, 419-428 (1986).-   Tuschl, T. Expanding small RNA interference. Nat Biotechnol 20,    446-448 (2002).-   Urnov, F. D., Rebar, E. J., Holmes, M. C., Zhang, H. S. &    Gregory, P. D. Genome editing with engineered zinc finger nucleases.    Nat Rev Genet 11, 636-646 (2010).-   Valton, J. et al. Overcoming transcription activator-like effector    (TALE) DNA binding domain sensitivity to cytosine methylation. J    Biol Chem 287, 38427-38432 (2012).-   Wang, H. et al. One-Step Generation of Mice Carrying Mutations in    Multiple Genes by CRISPR-Cas-Mediated Genome Engineering. Cell 153,    910-918 (2013).-   Watanabe, T. et al. Non-transgenic genome modifications in a    hemimetabolous insect using zinc-finger and TAL effector nucleases.    Nat Commun 3 (2012).-   Wilson, E. B. Probable inference, the law of succession, and    statistical inference. J Am Stat Assoc 22, 209-212 (1927).-   Wood, A. J. et al. Targeted genome editing across species using ZFNs    and TALENs. Science 333, 307 (2011).-   Wu, S., Ying, G. X., Wu, Q. & Capecchi, M. R. A protocol for    constructing gene targeting vectors: generating knockout mice for    the cadherin family and beyond. Nat Protoc 3, 1056-1076 (2008).-   Zhang, F. et al. Efficient construction of sequence-specific TAL    effectors for modulating mammalian transcription. Nat Biotechnol 29,    149-153 (2011).

While preferred embodiments of the present invention have been shown anddescribed herein, it will be obvious to those skilled in the art thatsuch embodiments are provided by way of example only. Numerousvariations, changes, and substitutions will now occur to those skilledin the art without departing from the invention. It should be understoodthat various alternatives to the embodiments of the invention describedherein may be employed in practicing the invention.

What is claimed is:
 1. A method of modifying a mammal by editing in vivoa DNA target sequence in a genomic locus of interest of a hepatic cellin the mammal, said method comprising delivering to the hepatic cell oneor more doses of a non-naturally occurring composition comprising ahepatotropic adeno-associated virus (AAV) particle comprising one ormore polynucleotides encoding: I. a CRISPR-Cas system guide RNAcomprising a guide sequence that hybridizes to the DNA target sequence,and II. a CRISPR enzyme, wherein the CRISPR enzyme is Staphylococcusaureus Cas9 (SaCas9), wherein the guide sequence directssequence-specific binding of a CRISPR complex to the DNA targetsequence, the CRISPR complex comprises the CRISPR enzyme complexed withthe CRISPR-Cas system guide RNA, and wherein the CRISPR complexintroduces a double-stranded break in vivo in the DNA target sequence inthe genomic locus of interest of the hepatic cell.
 2. The method ofclaim 1, wherein there is greater than 20% indel formation.
 3. Themethod of claim 1, wherein the one or more polynucleotides are operablylinked to an inducible promoter.
 4. The method of claim 1, wherein theone or more doses is a single dose.
 5. The method of claim 1, whereinexpression of the guide sequence is under the control of the T7 promoterand is driven by the expression of T7 polymerase.
 6. The method of claim1, wherein the double stranded break in the DNA target sequence causes aphenotypic change in said mammal.
 7. The method of claim 1, wherein theCRISPR-Cas system guide RNA is a chimeric RNA (chiRNA).
 8. The method ofclaim 1, wherein the one or more polynucleotides comprises tworegulatory elements, and wherein a polynucleotide sequence encoding theCRISPR-Cas system guide RNA is operably linked to a first regulatoryelement and a polynucleotide sequence encoding the CRISPR enzyme isoperably linked to a second regulatory element.
 9. The method of claim1, wherein the DNA target sequence is flanked at its 3′end by aprotospacer adjacent motif (PAM) sequence.
 10. The method of claim 1,wherein a polynucleotide sequence encoding the CRISPR enzyme is operablylinked to a liver-specific promoter.
 11. The method of claim 1, whereina polynucleotide sequence encoding the CRISPR enzyme is operably linkedto a liver-specific promoter.
 12. The method of claim 1, wherein apolynucleotide sequence encoding the CRISPR enzyme is operably linked toa TBG promoter.
 13. The method of claim 9, wherein the PAM sequence is5′-NNGRR where N is any nucleotide.
 14. The method of claim 1, whereinthe mammal is selected from the group consisting of a mouse, rat,ungulate, or primate.
 15. The method of claim 1, wherein the mammal is ahuman.
 16. The method of claim 1, wherein the AAV particle comprises anAAV2 and/or AAV8 capsid.
 17. The method of claim 1, wherein thedelivering comprises injecting the composition into the mammal.
 18. Themethod of claim 17, wherein injecting comprises intravenous injection,stereotactic injection, or intramuscular injection.